MILITARY  MANPOWER 


Lt.Col.  LINCOLN  C  ANDREWS 


MILITARY  MANPOWER 


Military  Manpower 

PSYCHOLOGY    AS    APPLIED    TO    THE   TRAINING    OP 
MEN  AND  THE  INCREASE  OF  THEIR  EFFECTIVENESS 


BY 

LINCOLN  C.  ANDREWS 

LT.    COL.    CAVALRY,    RETIRED 


WITH   A   FOREWORD   BY 

ROBERT  M.  DANFORD 

MAJOB,  FIELD   ARTILLERY 
COMMANDANT  OF  CADETS,   UNITED  STATES  MILITARY  ACADEMY 


NEW  YORK 

E.  P.  BUTTON  &  COMPANY 

681  FIFTH  AVENUE 


COPYRIGHT,  1920. 
BY  E.  P.  DUTTON  &  COMPANY 

All  Rights  Reserved 


Printed  In  the  United  State*  of  America 


PREFACE 

At  the  request  of  the  Commandant  I  have  prepared 
this  book  for  use  at  the  United  States  Military  Acad- 
emy, and  designed  it  for  use  in  informal  discussions 
rather  than  in  recitations.  We  believe  that  excellence 
in  the  art  of  handling  men  is  a  prime  requirement  for 
army  officers;  and  that  it  can  be  had  only  from  an 
intimate  personal  understanding  of  the  principles  in- 
volved, not  from  blindly  following  rules.  A  good  leader 
of  men  is  one  whose  impulses  are  right;  and  these 
impulses  come  from  a  genuine  acceptance  of  principles, 
from  one's  own  beliefs,  feelings,  and  experiences. 

We  believe  this  capacity  may  be  best  reached  through 
personal  thought  and  experience  brought  out  by  in- 
formal discussion.  Blank  pages  have  been  inserted  to 
give  instructors  and  students  opportunity  to  make  any 
notes  which  may  be  of  peculiar  personal  value. 

The  late  war  has  again  proved  that  machines  and 
cold  science  cannot  win  alone.  They  may  test  man's 
endurance  almost  to  the  limit,  but  in  the  end  superior 
manpower  wins.  It  is  the  fiber  of  our  manpower  that 
counts.  And  this  fiber  is  the  peculiar  care  of  the 
psychological  part  of  soldiering — of  leadership.  It  is 
generally  accepted  that  "a  knowledge  of  human  nature  is 
half  the  art  of  war," — that  the  psychologic  elements  are 


vi  PREFACE 

vital  considerations  for  an  army  leader.  Yet  these 
elements  have  not  heretofore  been  made  a  matter  of 
required  study  for  the  military  student,  and  the  young 
officer  has  had  to  learn  them  only  through  long  and 
often  bitter  experience. 

The  life  of  an  army  officer,  by  common  repute,  is 
narrow  and  narrowing.  In  reality  it  should  be  as 
broad  as  human  nature.  In  no  other  profession  does 
the  human  equation  play  a  more  important  part. 
Army  discipline,  also  by  common  repute,  is  narrowing, 
opposed  to  the  modern  idea  of  individualism,  and 
altogether  a  relic  of  the  Dark  Ages.  In  reality  the  dis- 
cipline demanded  by  the  requirements  of  modern  war 
is  quite  the  opposite  of  this  reputed  old  time  sub- 
serviency. It  calls  for  the  highest  development  of  the 
individual  soldier,  and  comes  only  with  his  increased 
manliness.  It  is  our  ambition  to  bring  to  the  young 
officers  of  the  Service  an  appreciation  of  the  broad 
field  before  them,  and  an  ability  to  engage  in  its  ac- 
tivities with  a  fair  comprehension  of  its  psychologic 
requirements  and  opportunities. 

^Ye  therefore  treat  on  broad  lines  the  psychologic 
aspects  of  the  military  profession.  They  fall  naturally 
into  three  parts:  first,  an  analysis  and  explanation  of 
the  various  psychologic  elements,  with  conclusions  as 
to  their  requirements;  second,  a  consideration  of  the 
principles  which  enable  the  student  to  make  himself  a 
good  leader;  and  last  a  consideration  of  those  elements 
in  training  which  enable  the  leader  to  make  his  men 
good  soldiers.  Lincoln  C.  Andrews. 


CONTENTS 

CHAPTER  I 

ANALYSIS  AND  EXPLANATION  OF  PSYCHOLOGIC 
ELEMENTS 

FAB.          PAGE 

THE  ESTIMATE 1  1 

THE  MILITARY  MACHINE 8  4 

ORGANIZATION 9  5 

SUBORDINATION 11  7 

TEAMWORK 15  9 

COMMAND 18  11 

DISCIPLINE 20  13 

MORALE .  31  21 

LEADERSHIP 37  26 

Using  Human  Tools     ....._....  42  29 

Right  to  Self-respect 46  31 

Citizens  of  Democracy 47  32 

Personal  Character      • 50  34 

Instincts  and  Habits 51  35 

Instinct  of  Leadership 54  37 

Personality 58  39 

CHAPTER  II 

THE  PRINCIPLES   OP  LEADERSHIP 

THE  OBJECT  OF  LEADERSHIP 62  42 

PERSONAL  QUALITIES 63  43 

QUALIFYING  FOR  LEADERSHIP 66  45 

SELF-CONTROL 71  47 

THE  MILITARY  CHARACTER 73  49 

vii 


viii  CONTENTS 

FAB.  PAGE 

PERSONAL  APPEARANCE 76  52 

As  to  Dignity 76  52 

As  to  Example 77  53 

Ability  to  Lead 78  54 

Knowledge  of  Details 79  55 

POPULARITY 80  55 

JUSTICE  AND  FAIRNESS 82  57 

LOYALTY  AND  INITIATIVE 83  58 

DEVELOPMENT  OF  MEN'S  POWERS 84  59 

SELF-RESPECT 85  60 

In  the  Leader 86  61 

In  the  Men • 87  62 

COURAGE  AND  FORCE  OF  CHARACTER 88  62 

CONTROL  BY  POWER  OF  EXAMPLE 89  63 

PERSONAL  PRIDE 90  65 

PRIDE  IN  ORGANIZATION 91  66 

DECISION 92  67 

THINKING 93  68 

A  REPRESENTATIVE  OF  AUTHORITY 94  69 

SYMPTOMS  AND  RESULTS  OF  POOR  LEADERSHIP     .      .  95  69 

PRESTIGE  AND  SUGGESTIONS 97  71 

ASKING  MEN'S  OPINIONS 98  72 

THE  HEAD  OF  THE  FAMILY 99  73 

THE  GROUP  SPIRIT 100  74 

This  Spirit  Requires  Efficiency 101  75 

Where  Leadership  Really  Shows 102  76 

ASSURING  CONFIDENCE  AND  JUSTICE 103  77 

CREATING  AND  MAINTAINING  DISCIPLINE  ....  104  78 

Discipline  from  Rewards 105  79 

Influence  of  Good  and  Poor  Men 106  79 

leader  a  Maker  of  Men 107  81 

I)IS<  ll'I.INK   UY    Pi  NI8HMENT 108  82 

Investigation  of  Offense 110  83 

Actual  Punishment  Unnecessary Ill  84 

The  Leader  s  Responsibility 112  85 

Prompt  Action  Necessary 113  85 


CONTENTS  ix 

PAB.  PAGE 

CARE  OF  MEN 114  86 

GIVING  ORDERS 116  88 

How  to  Give  an  Order 117  89 

How  Not  to  Give  Orders 118  89 

The  Why  of  an  Order 120  90 

Necessity  for  Following  up  Instructions                     ,  122  91 

Willful  Disobedience 124  92 

Orders  Rarely  Necessary 125  94 

THE  TONE  OF  VOICE 126  94 

SUPERVISION 127  95 

CHOOSING  MEN  FOR  TASKS 128  97 

CHEERFULNESS 129  98 

GROWLING  PERMISSIBLE 130  99 

LOYALTY  BY  EXAMPLE 131  100 

When  to  Question  Orders 132  100 

RECEIVING  INSTRUCTIONS 133  101 

TALKING  TO  MEN 134  101 

Demanding  Attention  of  All 135  102 

Talking  to  Individuals 136  103 

Example  Better  than  Talk 137  104 

Proper  Subjects  for  Talk 138  104 

TALKS  BY  THE  COMMANDER         139  105 

MUTUAL  ACQUAINTANCE  AMONG  SUBORDINATES    .      .  140  107 

RELATIONSHIP  BETWEEN  LEADER  AND  MEN    .      .      .  141  107 

RECEPTION  OF  NEW  MEN 143  109 

DEPENDING  ON  A  MAN 144  111 

TAKE  TIME  TO  HEAR  MEN 145  112 

PROMOTION 146  113 

KNOWING  THE  PURPOSE 148  114 

JOY  OF  DOING  WORK  WELL 149  115 

JOY  IN  ACCOMPLISHMENT 151  116 

REPETITION 152  117 

COMPETITION 153  118 

TEAM  COMPETITION 154  118 

SURPLUS  SPIRIT  155  119 


x  CONTENTS 

CHAPTER  III 

PSYCHOLOGICAL  ELEMENTS  OF  MILITARY  TRAINING 

PAH.  PAGE 

THE  GENERAL  OBJECT  OF  TRAINING 157  121 

THE  SPECIFIC  OBJECT — TWOFOLD 158  122 

INSTRUCTION  DIFFERENTIATED  FROM  DRILL     ...  161  123 

TRAINING  MUST  BUILD  CHARACTER 163  125 

GOOD  DRILL  MASTERS 164  125 

THE  PSYCHOLOGY  OF  BATTLE 167  127 

COURAGE  TO  BE  DEVELOPED 168  130 

FORMING  HABITS 169  130 

PRACTICAL  SUGGESTIONS 170  131 

Instructing  a  New  Command 171  131 

Supervising  Instruction 173  133 

Daily  Progress 174  133 

Increasing  Efficiency 175  134 

Tests 176  135 

Atmosphere 177  135 

Progressive  Steps 178  136 

Manual  of  Arms 179  137 

Watch  the  Feet .  180  138 

Marching  from  a  Halt 181  139 

Imitation 182  139 

CLOSE  ORDER  DRILL 183  140 

Guides 190  146 

Distance 192  148 

Alignment 193  148 

Comments 194  148 

Personal  Corrections 195  149 

"Pep" 196  149 

Alertness 197  150 

Commands 199  151 

Attention 203  153 

File  Closers 206  154 

Counting  Aloud 207  155 

Giving  Command  on  Certain  Foot 208  165 


CONTENTS  xi 

FAB.  PAGE 

EXTENDED  ORDER 209  156 

The  Fire  Fight 210  156 

Battle  Exercises 213  159 

Effect  on  Individuals 216  161 

Designating  the  Target 218  162 

Loss  of  Leaders 219  163 

Do  Not  Seek  Perfection 220  163 

Decision  and  Resourcefulness  from  Practice  .     .     .  221  164 

Desired  Elements  in  the  Critique 223  165 

Using  Time  to  Advantage 224  165 

MARCHING 226  166 

PHYSICAL  TRAINING 227  167 

MILITARY  COURTESY 228  168 

GUARD  DUTY 229  169 

SANITATION 230  170 

FIRST  AID 231  171 

CEREMONIES 232  172 

INFORMATION 233  173 

SMALL  ARMS  PRACTICE .  234  173 

OTHER  SUBJECTS 235  174 

RIOT  DUTY 237  175 

Psychological  Principles 240  177 

Practical  Suggestions 242  179 

CONCLUSION 243  186 


FOREWORD 

Notwithstanding  the  marvelous  achievements  of 
invention,  and  their  adaptation  to  modern 
warfare — notwithstanding  the  airplane,  the  dirigible, 
and  the  aerial  bomb;  the  submarine,  the  mine,  and 
the  torpedo;  the  machine  gun,  poison  gas,  and  super- 
range  artillery,  man's  most  important  weapon  in 
battle  is,  and  will  ever  remain,  man.  In  training 
against  war,  therefore,  he  must  have  our  first  and 
greatest  attention. 

Modern  battle  conditions  make,  to  a  degree  never 
before  known,  the  severest  demands  on  a  soldier's 
character.  Has  he  the  manhood  to  meet  these  unusual 
strains?  Has  he  the  knowledge,  the  self-confidence, 
the  initiative,  the  ready  fearlessness  to  accept  re- 
sponsibilities, to  carry  on  successfully  when  orders  from 
his  superiors  are  wanting?  Our  training,  and  our 
methods  of  inculcating  discipline  must  make  sure 
that  he  has.  They  must  be  such  as  to  exalt,  to  develop, 
and  to  strengthen  his  manly  qualities. 

Everything  a  soldier  has  to  do  to-day  is  better  done 
in  proportion  to  the'  strength  and  manliness  of  his 
character.  The  servility  that  characterized  the  old 
time  discipline  of  fear  and  unthinking  obedience  to 

xiii 


xiv  FOREWORD 

autocratic  control  would  unman  the  soldier  of  to-day 
and  unfit  him  to  meet  present  battle  requirements. 
That  type  of  discipline  was  suited  in  times  past  to  the 
control  of  ignorant  peasants  who  were  neither  required 
nor  expected  to  think  in  battle.  Not  so  to-day.  We 
do  not  now  deal  with  such  men  or  with  such  conditions. 
The  modern  spread  of  education  among  the  masses 
has  made  the  situation  vastly  different.  Our  soldier  of 
to-day  is  an  educated  citizen  of  the  democratic  com- 
munity. The  only  reasonable  thing  to  do  is  to  recog- 
nize this  fact  and  to  take  full  advantage  of  it  by  basing 
our  training  and  discipline  on  his  intelligence,  on  his 
pride  of  self,  race,  and  country,  on  his  natural  desire  to 
do  the  right  thing  and  to  excel,  and  on  a  plan  for 
developing  his  manliness  instead  of  destroying  it. 

Training  and  maintenance  of  discipline  are  for  the 
most  part  in  the  hands  of  subalterns.  It  is,  therefore, 
of  first  importance  to  see  that  the  young  officers  of  the 
service  have  the  right  ideas  about  them.  West  Point 
has  ever  set  an  exalted  standard  for  American  man- 
liness. It  is  altogether  fitting  and  proper  that  her 
graduates  should  be  experts  in  that  art  of  training 
which  has  for  its  object  the  development  of  character 
and  manliness.  The  late  war  proved  that  character 
and  leadership  were  paramount  qualifications  for  suc- 
cessful operations.  Technique  alone  is  not  enough. 
These  vital  human  qualifications  should,  therefore,  not 
be  left  to  chance  and  tradition  but  should  be  made  an 
essential  part  of  the  education  of  our  young  officers. 

In  the  training  of  officers  during  the  war  I  used  to 


FOREWORD  xv 

the  greatest  advantage  as  a  basis  for  instruction  along 
the  above  lines,  General  Andrews'  writings  on  "Leader- 
ship." It  having  been  decided  by  the  Academic  Board 
that  studies  in  the  psychology  of  command  be  intro- 
duced at  the  Military  Academy  and  conducted  by  the 
Department  of  Tactics,  it  was  natural  that  General 
Andrews,  as  the  pioneer  writer  in  this  field,  be  asked  to 
prepare  the  text-book  for  our  use.  I  have  been  over 
the  manuscript  with  him  and  believe  that  it  will  give 
military  students  such  an  understanding  of  the  fun- 
damental principles  involved  as  will  enable  them  to 
meet  successfully  the  requirements  of  leadership  under 
modern  conditions. 

ROBERT  M.  DANFORD. 


MILITARY  MANPOWER 


MILITARY  MANPOWER 

CHAPTER   1 

ANALYSIS  AND  EXPLANATION  OF  PSYCHOLOGIC  ELEMENTS 

1.  The  Estimate.     No  matter  how  skilled  in  its 
technique,  to  be  a  successful  leader  in  the  military  game 
one  must  have  a  definite  idea  of  its  object,  and  must 
clearly  comprehend  its  psychologic  elements  together 
with  what  they  mean  to  him  personally  in  playing  his 
part. 

The  one  final  object  of  the  whole  game  is  to  win 
success  in  war  through  superiority  in  battle.  The 
final  test  of  our  ability  to  play  is  made  on  the  battle 
field  where  we  meet  the  enemy  and  must  beat  him  or  be 
beaten.  And  the  issue  of  this  test  is  so  tremendous, 
so  vital  to  the  nation,  as  to  stir  the  blood  of  the  most 
lethargic  and  to  test  the  nerve  and  resource  of  our 
highest  manhood.  We  may  therefore  count  with 
assurance  on  having  the  keen  interest  of  all  engaged, 
and  may  depend  on  appealing  successfully  to  their 
deeper  emotions  and  feelings. 

2.  To  meet  this  final  test  of  battle  the  functioning  of 
the  whole  military  machine  finally  establishes  a  fighting 
line  facing  the  enemy.     This  line  is  composed  of  certain 


2  MILITARY  MANPOWER 

infantry  platoons  disposed  side  by  side  throughout  its 
length,  with  others  disposed  in  depth  behind  them  to 
be  brought  in  turn  into  the  fight  as  conditions  require — 
while  over  them,  among  them,  and  behind  them  are 
the  units  of  all  the  auxiliary  arms  that  modern  war  has 
brought  into  action. 

3.  The  battle  will  be  fought  by  these  platoons,  each 
fighting  one  of  the  many  local  combats  whose  ensemble 
will  make  up  the  whole  battle.     Ultimate  success  or 
defeat  must  be  the  combined  result  of  the  successes 
and  failures  of  these  combat  platoons.     Poor  leadership 
in  a  few  of  them  may  mean  only  the  unnecessary  loss 
of  the  lives  of  their  men — other  units  better  led  taking 
over  their  tasks  from  rear  echelons.     But  while  that  is 
bad  enough,  if  too  many  of  these  platoons  be  defeated 
we  will  meet  not  only  the  frightful  losses  in  lives  but 
must  meet  the  unthinkable  result  of  ultimate  defeat  in 
the  battle. 

4.  We  therefore  see  that  no  matter  what  the  skill  of 
our  chiefs  or  the  righteousness  of  our  cause,  in  the  final 
analysis  ultimate  victory  or  defeat  rests  in  the  hands 
of  the  leaders  of  the  combat  units.     And  not  alone  does 
it  depend  on  their  ability  here  to  lead  intelligently 
and  courageously  in  the  fight,  but  far  more  it  depends 
on  how  they  have  performed  the  more  exacting  functions 
of  leadership  in  the  period  of  training  and  preparation. 
Have  they  brought  their  units  to  the  test  of  battle 
properly  fitted  to  meet  it; — fit  mentally,  morally  and 
physically;  highly  trained  and  highly  resolved;  each 
man  confident  in  his  own  strength  and  ability,  con- 


ANALYSIS  AND  EXPLANATION  3 

fident  of  the  teamwork  of  his  fellows,  sure  of  the  ability, 
courage  and  stamina  of  his  leader? 

5.  Machines  and  the  cold  products  of  science  cannot 
alone  win  a  war.     They  may  test  the  powers  of  human 
endurance  and  resource,  but  will  never  overcome  them. 
In  the  end  superior  manhood  will  always  emerge  the 
victor.     Therefore,    while    continuing    the    studies    of 
strategy,  tactics  and  logistics,  we  must  remember  that 
the  most  perfectly  calculated  trajectory  is  still  subject 
to  the  nerve  of  the  man  behind  the  gun,  and  that  the 
fiber  of  the  hearts  and  souls  and  bodies  of  our  men  is 
to  be  the  supreme  test  of  our  ability  to  win  in  the  end. 
It  is  therefore  an  important  part  of  our  business  to 
learn  how  to  make  that  fiber  fit  to  meet  this  supreme 
test.    Since  manpower  is  to  be  the  victor,  let  us  prepare 
to  crush  that  of  the  enemy, — yes;  but  let  us  also  learn 
how  to  develop  our  own  to  its  maximum  efficiency. 
It  is  marvelous  what  patriotism  and  youth  have  made 
some  of  our  men  endure  and  dare  even  under  the  depres- 
sion of  poor  leadership.     By  comparison  it  would  be 
miraculous  what  those  same  men  would  do  under  the 
inspiration    of    skillful,    high   souled  leadership.     We 
want  only  the  latter  type  in  the  future. 

6.  The  development  of  this  maximum  manpower, 
through  building  up  the  requisite  moral  qualities  in 
training,  is  the  real  test  of  the  leader's  fitness  for  com- 
mand.    It  demands  patience  and  energy,  faithfulness 
to  duty,  ingenuity  and  forethought.     In  fact  it  requires 
the  highest  order  of  ability  and  employs  all  the  qualities 
of  leadership.     Almost  any  man  of  heart  may  quickly 


4  MILITARY  MANPOWER 

learn  enough  to  enable  him  to  lead  a  well  trained 
platoon  in  battle.  That  is  comparatively  simple.  But 
it  takes  real  intelligence  and  character  to  take  raw 
material  and  quickly  prepare  it  to  meet  the  test  of 
battle, — quickly  to  convert  a  group  of  all  types  of 
untrained  men  into  a  smooth  working  fighting  machine, 
inspired  by  an  indomitable  soul  to  conquer  and  justified 
hi  their  faith. 

7.  To  become  proficient  in  such  leadership  should  be 
the  ambition  of  every  young  officer.     To  be  able  to 
develop  such  leadership  in  his  subordinates  should  be 
the  aim  of  every  commander.     The  art  of  handling  men, 
of  so  handling  them  as  to  inspire  their  best  efforts,  is 
rapidly  gaining  recognition  as  an  essential  to  success 
in  every  undertaking  which  demands  the  controlled 
action  of  man.     It  is  a  paramount  consideration  in  the 
military  service,  and  has  been  recognized  as  such  as  a 
result  of  the  lessons  of  the  war.     From  now  on  the 
army  may  no  longer  be  content  with  its  infrequent 
"born  leaders,"  and  its  various  ideas  of  discipline  and 
command  gathered  hit  or  miss  from  story  and  tradition. 
The  true  principles  of  leadership  as  adapted  to  the 
genius  of  our  people  have  been  garnered  from  experience 
and  made  a  matter  for  individual  study  and  application; 
— so  we  may  hope  to  see  the  terms  "hard  boiled"  and 
"bone  head"  gradually  fade  from  our  military  vocabu- 
lary. 

8.  The  Military  Machine.    An  army  is  called  a 
machine  because  it  is  a  mighty  instrument  whose  parts 
must  work  together  interdependently  and  surely  toward 


ANALYSIS  AND  EXPLANATION  5 

the  one  result, — the  application  on  the  battle  field  of 
that  tremendous  force  which  is  to  crush  the  enemy. 
Its  vast  numbers  of  personnel  and  masses  of  materiel 
must  be  so  organized,  supplied,  trained  and  moved 
as  to  be  able  to  act  as  one  unit,  quickly  and  effectively 
responsive  to  the  will  of  the  chief.  Every  ounce  of  all 
this  energy  must  be  concentrated  into  that  skilfully 
directed  force.  And  the  more  all  these  units  of  energy 
are  perfected  to  function  smoothly  and  indomitably 
like  a  machine,  the  more  surely  will  our  army  win,  if 
we  but  keep  in  mind  the  vital  fact  that  this  machine 
possesses  a  sensitive  soul,  most  responsive  to  how  it  is 
treated  and  most  potent  for  good  or  evil.  For  this 
machine  is  built  up  of  live  sentient  human  beings,  and 
unless  they  be  individually  highly  inspired,  of  high 
courage  and  resolve,  with  the  justified  confidence  which 
begets  morale,  the  machine  may  work  in  peace  but 
cannot  meet  the  tests  of  battle. 

Because  this  machine  is  made  up  of  human  beings,  its 
psychologic  elements  assume  great  importance.  The 
fundamental  ones,  which  make  it  a  going  concern,  are 
Organization,  Subordination,  Teamwork,  Command, 
Discipline,  Morale  and  Leadership.  Let  us  see  what 
they  mean  to  the  leader. 

9.  Organization.  No  matter  how  large  the  number 
of  men  brought  together  for  any  purpose,  proper  or- 
ganization groups  them  into  divisions  and  subdivisions 
in  accordance  with  the  kind  of  work  they  are  to  do;  and 
continues  this  grouping  until  in  each  case  the  smallest 
subdivision  contains  no  more  individuals  than  one  man 


6  MILITARY  MANPOWER 

can  control  in  that  particular  work  through  direct 
personal  contact  and  supervision.  A  chief,  or  leader, 
is  put  in  charge  of  each  division  and  subdivision.  He 
transmits  instructions  from  higher  authority,  and  is 
held  personally  responsible  for  the  control,  work,  dis- 
cipline and  efficiency  of  every  one  under  him.  Thus 
organization  lines  every  one  up  in  his  own  place,  gives 
him  a  definite  part  to  play  under  a  prescribed  chief, 
and  thus  enables  the  whole  body  to  function  smoothly 
like  a  machine  in  exact  response  to  the  policies  and 
control  of  the  governing  head. 

10.  In  military  organization,  no  matter  how  large 
the  army,  the  will  of  its  high  command  quickly  passes 
from  superior  to  subordinate  until  in  the  end  it  has 
reached  the  squad  leaders  and  they  have  transmitted 
it  to  the  men  in  ranks.  Thus  the  whole  vast  machine 
may  move  uniformly,  accurately  responsive  to  the 
master  mind.  So  in  any  large  civil  undertaking,  depart- 
ment heads,  superintendents,  foremen  and  sub-foremen 
furnish  the  line  of  control  from  the  head  to  all  of  his 
men  no  matter  how  numerous  or  how  far  removed. 
These  subordinates  represent  his  policies,  his  will,  and 
his  spirit;  they  stand  in  relation  to  their  direct  sub- 
ordinates in  the  place  of  the  chief  and  try  to  function  as 
he  would  do  if  present;  meantime  each  finds  in  his 
immediate  superior  the  authority  and  inspiration  that 
come  from  the  chief.  It  is  impossible  for  any  one 
mind  to  encompass  all  the  details  of  a  large  undertaking, 
and  furthermore  too  much  attention  to  detail  crowds 
out  the  possibility  of  vision  and  future  planning.  Hence 


ANALYSIS  AND  EXPLANATION  7 

the  necessity  for  and  the  advantage  of  this  matter  of 
organization  and  of  delegating  to  subordinates  the 
authority  and  initiative  of  the  chief;  and  therefore  it  is 
that  we  say  that  the  big  man  as  an  executive  is  he  who 
picks  good  subordinates,  makes  of  them  his  responsible 
and  responsive  agents,  and  then  gives  them  wide 
initiative.  This  is  particularly  true  in  the  army.  How 
often  we  see  a  battalion  commander  who  is  a  failure 
simply  because  he  cannot  wean  himself  from  the 
command  of  a  company  and  is  continually  interfering 
with  details  which  are  the  proper  function  of  his 
captains. 

11.  Subordination.  This  means  that  every  one  in 
the  organization  must  continually  recognize  the  fact 
that  each  individual  in  his  own  office  has  his  own  par- 
ticular responsibilities  and  privileges,  and  that  these 
must  be  observed  by  all  both  above  and  below  him. 
Particularly  must  each  superior  take  pains  always  to 
recognize  the  rights  and  responsibilities  of  his  sub- 
ordinates, and  to  give  full  play  to  their  powers  in  the 
proper  exercise  of  the  functions  of  their  grades.  He 
must  hold  the  squad  leader  responsible  for  the  work  of 
his  men,  and  actually  deal  with  him  or  at  least  through 
him  whenever  he  finds  matters  for  correction  or  com- 
mendation among  his  men.  He  must  not  yield  to  the 
temptation  to  do  the  corporal's  work  for  him,  even 
though  that  be  the  easier,  quicker  way.  The  important 
thing  is  to  build  up  that  squad  leader  and  his  men  into 
an  efficient  team,  of  which  he  is  the  team  captain, — 
resourceful,  confident,  and  skilled  in  handling  his  men. 


8  MILITARY  MANPOWER 

When  the  men  find  the  captain  actually  correcting  and 
commending  their  leader  for  what  they  have  done 
rather  than  dealing  with  them  directly,  they  realize 
that  this  squad  leader  is  really  responsible  for  their 
work,  good  or  bad,  and  begin  to  see  in  him  their  real 
boss  and  to  respect  him  as  such.  This  also  shows  the 
squad  leader  that  he  is  recognized  as  the  actual  boss 
and  held  responsible  for  results,  thus  developing  his 
initiative,  his  legitimate  pride  of  office,  and  his  keen 
interest  in  the  performance  of  his  men. 

12.  While,  for  the  sake  of  these  psychological  effects, 
minor  corrections  and  commendations  are  thus  made 
in  the  presence  of  the  men  involved,  if  the  leader  needs 
serious  correction  for  mistaken  policy,  slackness,  poor 
judgment,  anything  which  corrected  in  the  hearing  of 
his  men  would  necessarily  lower  their  respect  for  him, 
he  should  be  corrected  in  private  and  given  the  oppor- 
tunity to  win  the  added  respect  of  his  men  by  appearing 
to  make  the  correction  on  his  own  initiative.    In  short, 
the  controlling  principle  in  all  dealing  with  subordinate 
leaders  is  to  do  everything  possible  to  exalt  them  and  to 
develop  and  establish  in  the  minds  of  their  subordinates 
the  power  of  their  leadership,  remembering  that  we  are 
training  team  captains,  whose  efficiency  will  be  of  in- 
estimable value  later,  when  real  work  is  to  be  done. 

13.  It  is  of  course  quite  patent  that  subordination 
equally  requires  that  each  leader  give  loyal,  cheerful 
response  to  the  authority  of  the  leader  directly  above 
him  in  the  organization.    This  is  not  only  essential  to 
the  success  of  the  machine,  but  is  of  the  greatest  value 


ANALYSIS  AND  EXPLANATION  9 

to  the  leader  concerned  in  that  he  may  thus  set  an 
example  to  his  own  subordinates  of  the  kind  of  service 
he  expects  from  them. 

14.  To  prevent  friction  in  the  working  of  the  machine, 
the  function  of  each  of  these  steps  in  subordination 
from  the  chief  down  to  his  men  in  the  ranks  should  be 
well  defined  and  thoroughly  understood  by  all  members 
of  the  entire  force.     And  as  these  steps  form  the  quick 
sure  means  for  transmitting  the  will  of  the  chief  to  his 
men,  so  hi  the  ideal  case  they  would  be  the  equally  sure 
means  of  informing  the  chief  as  to  the  feelings  and 
condition  of  his  men.     In  any  case  these  steps  form 
the  rungs  of  the  ladder  by  which  any  man  may  aspire 
to  promotion,  and  there  should  be  an  ever  present 
atmosphere  of  encouragement  for  every  man  who  will 
strive  to  fit  himself  to  do  the  work  of  the  man  next 
above  him.     Such  an  atmosphere  frees  in  the  man  the 
instincts  of  ambition  and  construction,  thus  promoting 
interest,  suggestion,  and  better  performance. 

15.  Teamwork.    The  meaning  of  teamwork  is  clear 
and  the  fact  that  it  is  absolutely  essential  to  the  success 
of  the  military  machine  is  evident  to  any  one  giving  it 
serious  thought.     All  army  work  and  play  have  in  the 
background  the  thought  of  developing  the  spirit  of 
trustworthy  teamwork  so  surely  it  may  be  depended 
upon.     Every  one  is  taught  that  each  member  is  con- 
stantly playing  for  the  team  and  not  for  himself.    The 
difficulty  is  to  overcome  individual  ambition,  selfish- 
ness, indifference,  and  distrust  of  the  faithfulness  of  one's 
fellows.     It  is  necessary  to  make  the  individual  feel 


10  MILITARY  MANPOWER 

that  promoting  the  interests  of  the  team  brings  him 
more  good  than  looking  after  his  own,  and  that  his 
fellows  in  the  team  are  always  found  doing  their  full 
parts.  This  is  one  of  the  prime  cares  of  the  leader, 
and  constantly  considered  in  discussing  leadership.  It 
demands  that  the  leader  always  give  credit  where  it  is 
due  and  intelligently  supervise  and  criticize  the  work  of 
his  men;  and  it  results  in  two  states  of  mind  which  are 
most  potent  for  good  work: — no  matter  in  what  isola- 
tion the  individual  has  to  work  he  feels  that  his  work 
is  an  important  and  necessary  part  of  the  whole  and 
that  it  will  receive  due  appreciation;  and  he  is  also 
borne  up  by  the  thought  that  each  of  his  fellows  is 
doing  his  own  part  with  equal  faithf ulness,  and  likewise 
counting  on  him  to  do  his. 

16.  In  modern  battle,  as  in  foot-ball,  there  are  but 
rare  occasions  for  "individual  plays."  Success  demands 
the  most  unselfish  playing  for  the  team.  The  individual 
who  plays  fair  gives  as  much  thought  to  his  comrades 
as  to  himself.  A  platoon  attacks  not  alone  that  it  may 
advance  but  more  often  to  make  possible  the  advance 
of  others  beside  it.  And  not  only  do  the  elements  of 
each  organization  thus  work  for  each  other,  but  even 
the  different  arms,  infantry,  cavalry,  artillery,  must 
often  sacrifice  brilliant  opportunities  and  even  meet 
local  defeats,  loyally  working  for  the  good  of  the  whole 
team.  Thus  each  unit,  from  the  army  down  to  the 
squad,  is  considered  and  trained  as  a  team,  each  under 
its  own  team  captain.  The  elements  of  each  are  taught 
to  work  together  for  the  common  good,  each  under  its 


ANALYSIS  AND  EXPLANATION  11 

own  leader;  and  these  leaders  are  taught  not  only  the 
principles  of  good  leadership  but  always  the  spirit 
and  technique  of  cooperation  and  loyal  teamwork. 

17.  Thus  in  the  last  analysis  the  squad  leaders  train 
their  individual  men  into  the  squad  teams.     These  are 
the  unit  teams,  the  basis  of  the  whole  machine  on  which 
its  success  must  depend.     Here  the  men  learn  the 
elements  of  the  military  game,  individual  skill  coalesced 
into  intimate  teamwork  through  cooperation,  discipline 
and  leadership.     And  any  one  member  may  properly 
aspire  to  the  leadership  of  this  squad  team,  should 
properly  strive  for  it — may  have  it  thrust  upon  him — 
and  should,  therefore,  fit  himself  to  meet  it  worthily. 

18.  Command.     If  I  were  told  that  I  could  teach  a 
young  officer  just  one  thing  and  that  he  must  thereafter 
work  out  his  own  salvation,  I  would  concentrate  on 
giving  him  a  clear  conception  of  the  modern  theory  of 
command,  for  it  is  the  foundation  of  all  military  train- 
ing and  the  framework  for  true  discipline  and  morale. 
This  fact  is  emphasized  by  the  failures,  discouraged 
heart  burnings  and  unnecessary  losses  which  result 
under  the  leadership  of  those  who  have  as  yet  failed  to 
grasp  the  real  idea  of  command. 

Command  no  longer  depends  solely  on  the  implicit 
obedience  of  subordinates,  nor  is  the  development  of 
blind  obedience  in  the  men  any  longer  the  prime 
object  of  military  training.  Command  gets  its  best 
results  to-day  from  developing  in  subordinates  the  two 
essential  qualities  of  loyalty  and  intelligent  initiative,  and 
then  trusting  them  to  play  their  parts  in  the  game. 


12  MILITARY  MANPOWER 

This  is  a  development  of  the  last  half  century,  an 
intelligent  response  to  changed  conditions.  It  is  based 
on  the  modern  development  of  the  individual  as  a  re- 
sponsible unit  in  the  social  and  political  community,  and 
more  particularly  on  the  fact  that  the  bigness  of  modern 
tiaae  enterprises  makes  impracticable  the  older  time 
dictatorial  control  by  a  single  head.  Implicit  obedience 
to  exact  orders  can  be  successful  only  when  the  man  who 
gives  the  order  is  on  the  spot  and  fully  acquainted  with 
the  existing  conditions.  This  is  impossible  for  all  the 
details  of  large  enterprises,  and  especially  impossible 
on  the  modern  battle  field.  The  "I  order,  you  obey" 
and  the  "You're  not  paid  to  think"  stuff  is  entirely 
inadequate  for  big  affairs.  Opportunities  for  sub- 
ordinates to  do  good  work  must  constantly  occur 
beyond  the  vision  of  the  big  chief  and  go  unimproved 
if  the  subordinate  has  to  wait  for  the  chief's  order 
before  acting.  Circumstances  will  often  arise  beyond 
the  chief's  knowledge  which  would  make  the  exact 
execution  of  his  order  a  disastrous  thing. 

19.  Modern  command  recognizes  that  the  man  who 
is  on  the  spot  is  in  the  best  position  to  know  what  should 
be  done,  and  that  if  he  has  been  properly  trained  and 
instructed,  better  results  will  come  from  his  acting  on 
his  own  initiative,  rather  than  from  his  blind  obedience 
to  orders.  Sad  as  it  is  for  romance,  the  officer  who 
to-day  led  a  "Charge  of  the  Light  Brigade"  would  be 
considered  stupid,  and  properly  relieved  as  unfit  for 
command.  Subordinates  are  now  expected  to  know 
what  is  going  on  about  them,  and  to  use  intelligent 


ANALYSIS  AND  EXPLANATION  13 

judgment.  Positive  orders  are  of  course  as  rigidly 
obeyed  as  ever, — but  they  are  not  given  unless  the 
superior  is  on  the  spot  in  person  and  knows  the  con- 
ditions. The  subordinate  is  now  instructed  as  to  the 
plan  of  action  and  the  part  he  is  to  play  in  it,  and  then 
expected  to  carry  on  to  the  best  advantage.  To  fit 
him  so  he  may  be  trusted  to  do  this  is  the  main  object 
of  training,  the  determining  factor  in  fixing  the  policy 
and  curriculum  in  military  education.  We  still  demand 
exact  obedience  to  positive  orders,  but  get  it  through  an 
intelligent  understanding  of  its  necessity  rather  than 
through  a  damning  subservience.  Meanwhile  we  strive 
to  develop  the  man's  powers  of  observation  and  analysis 
so  he  may  get  a  true  estimate  of  the  situation;  his  powers 
of  reason  so  he  may  arrive  at  a  logical  decision  and  feel  sure 
that  he  is  right;  and  his  strength  of  character  so  he  may 
willingly  accept  and  cheerfully  bear  the  full  responsibility 
of  acting  on  this  decision.  These  are  weighty  considera- 
tions for  the  military  student  and  instructor.  Any 
course  of  action  which  tends  to  negative  these  results 
may  be  considered  questionable;  while  in  every  part  of 
training  and  in  everything  that  is  done  in  handling 
men  these  desired  objects  should  be  kept  clearly  in 
mind  as  guides  in  deciding  just  what  to  do  and  how 
to  do  it. 

20.  Discipline.  We  have  seen  that  the  require- 
ments of  Organization  make  every  leader,  no  matter 
what  his  grade,  responsible  for  the  discipline  of  his  sub- 
ordinates;— he  has  to  be  a  disciplinarian,  good  or  bad. 
How  unreasonable  for  a  man  to  accept  this  respon- 


14  MILITARY  MANPOWER 

sibility  without  a  clear  understanding  of  what  discipline 
truly  is  and  of  how  it  is  inspired.  Yet  there  is  no 
subject  more  commonly  abused  by  ignorance  and  mis- 
conception,— and  this  is  especially  true  of  army  dis- 
cipline. Many  a  man  of  sensibilities,  appreciating 
what  the  individuality  of  a  human  soul  has  come  to 
mean,  shrinks  from  accepting  a  position  of  military 
leadership  through  natural  repugnance  for  administer- 
ing "army  discipline."  And  the  old  traditional  ideas  of 
discipline,  handed  down  from  the  methods  employed 
for  the  control  of  serfs,  mercenaries  and  impressed  sea- 
men, are  indeed  calculated  to  be  repugnant  to  any 
democrat  sensitive  to  the  true  meanings  of  social  and 
political  life  to-day.  This  too  prevalent  conception  of 
army  discipline  is  unfortunately  justified  by  the  con- 
duct of  many  unthinking  officers,  who  do  not  realize 
that  they  are  using  methods  of  the  Dark  Ages  on 
modern  humans.  This  is  to-day  the  biggest  obstacle  to 
the  adoption  of  universal  training  for  our  youth. 
Parents  justifiably  resent  the  thought  of  submitting 
the  manliness  of  their  sons  to  the  humiliations  and  un- 
manning conditions  which  are  imposed  by  these  "hard 
boiled* *  disciplinarians. 

21.  A  true  appreciation  of  what  discipline  really  is 
and  how  to  get  it  should  be  the  subject  of  interested 
study  and  thorough  personal  understanding  on  the 
part  of  every  military  student.  It  may  make  this 
understanding  easier  if  we  first  realize  what  a  common 
thing  discipline  is  in  every  day  life.  It  is  perhaps  the 
most  common,  for  it  guides  us  in  practically  all  our 


ANALYSIS  AND  EXPLANATION  15 

personal  daily  affairs.  Even  the  cave  man  must  observe 
the  discipline  imposed  by  the  laws  of  nature;  while 
civilized  man  must  bow  more  or  less  cheerfully  to  social 
and  community  regulations,  ranging  in  seriousness  from 
some  convention  as  to  wearing  his  hat,  up  to  the 
Eighteenth  Constitutional  Amendment.  We  are  al- 
ways the  subjects  of  some  discipline, — that  of  the 
home,  of  the  school,  the  church,  the  office,  the  hotel 
or  the  street  car.  The  decent  citizen  and  the  happy 
one  is  he  who  accepts  this  discipline  cheerfully, — or  else 
flees  from  the  strictures  of  community  living.  We  thus 
see  the  absurdity  of  the  common  conception  that  army 
discipline  is  such  a  unique  affair;  and  that  to  be  a  dis- 
ciplinarian is  necessarily  so  difficult.  In  fact  the  most 
perfect  example  of  real  efficient  discipline,  and  the  exam- 
ple most  worthy  our  emulation,  is  the  discipline  which  a 
wise  father  inspires  in  his  son.  Here  we  see  the  un- 
swerving loyalty,  quick  cheerful  obedience,  and  readi- 
ness to  fight  for  the  honor  of  his  chief,  which  are  always 
the  evidences  of  good  leadership,  and  characterize  the 
discipline  which  the  good  captain  always  inspires  in 
his  company.  This  is  the  modern  type  of  discipline; 
and  as  it  is  brought  about  through  employing  the 
better  qualities  of  mankind  and  developing  their  man- 
liness and  self-respect,  it  may  well  become  a  matter  of 
keen  interest  and  personal  satisfaction  to  an  intelligent 
man  exercising  the  responsibilities  of  leadership. 

22.  Group  discipline  may  be  defined  as  the  common 
spirit  which  pervades  all  the  members  of  the  group,  the 
controlling  spirit  which  governs  the  impulses  of  the 


16  MILITARY  MANPOWER 

(individuals  and  makes  them  try  to  make  good,  to  give 
their  best  in  the  common  cause.  It  is  as  essential  to 
rthe  successful  working  of  an  organized  machine  of 
jhumans  as  is  live  steam  to  the  working  of  a  cold  engine. 
Its  existence  in  any  group  is  manifested  by  a  ready 
/  cheerful  obedience  to  instructions,  by  respect  shown  to 
jthose  in  authority,  and  by  a  high  sense  of  individual 
duty  and  conduct.  Colonel  Applin  of  the  British 
Army  defined  it  as  "Instant  and  willing  obedience  to 
orders,  and  in  the  absence  of  an  order  to  what  you 
believe  the  order  would  have  been."  It  has  been  well 
called  the  "soul"  of  armies, — which  means  that  it  is  the 
responsive  animating  spirit  which  leads  men  to  splendid 
deeds  of  heroism,  gives  them  heart  for  cheerful  en- 
durance of  untold  hardships,  makes  them  freely  sur- 
render individual  wills  to  the  will  of  the  leader,  and  binds 
them  into  a  loyal  fellowship,  aspiring,  sacrificing, 
working  together  for  a  common  cause. 

23.  The  object  sought  by  the  disciplinarian  is  to 
develop  in  his  group  this  healthful  potent  spirit,  and  to 
do  this  is  the  real  function  and  test  of  leadership.  The 
subjects  of  Discipline,  Morale  and  Leadership  are  in 
fact  intimately  related,  and  all  the  discussions  of  the 
principles  of  leadership  bear  directly  on  the  develop- 
ment and  maintenance  of  discipline  and  morale.  It  is 
enough  here  to  give  a  picture  of  what  discipline  means, 
to  state  that  it  is  the  outgrowth  of  good  leadership, 
and  to  caution  the  leader  that  discipline  is  not  the  main 
object  sought  but  rather  the  sure  means  which  he 
employs  toward  the  attainment  of  his  real  object — 


ANALYSIS  AND  EXPLANATION  17 

fitting  his  command  to  meet  successfully  the  tests  of 
campaign  and  battle.  Many  an  officer  has  failed  to 
make  good  because  he  forgot  this  ultimate  object  in 
his  absorption  in  the  details  of  administering  discipline, 
thereby  missing  even  the  goal  of  being  a  good  discipli- 
narian. 

24.  The  relative  value  of  discipline  has  been  rated  by 
Napoleon  as  seventy-five  per  cent  of  all  the  elements 
that  go  to  make  success  in  battle.     Some  of  our  senior 
officers  in  the  late  war  rated  it  as  high  as  ninety  per  cent. 
Place  it  where  you  will,  it  still  remains  the  most  im- 
portant consideration  for  every  officer.     Because  it  is 
so  important  we  no  longer  leave  it  to  the  whim  of  the 
individual  officer,  but  have  analyzed  its  requirements 
and  from  the  experiences  of  the  past  have  garnered  the 
principles  and  methods  that  have  been  found  most 
helpful  in  developing  it.     We  now  prescribe  that  the 
young  officer  shall  study  these  principles  and  fit  himself 
in  this  phase  of  the  military  art  as  thoroughly  as  in  any 
other. 

25.  The  manifestations  of  discipline,  and  the  various 
appeals  to  inspire  it,  differ  in  accordance  with  the  work 
to  be  done  by  the  members  of  the  group  and  with  the 
personalities  of  both  the  leader  and  his  men.     But  all 
spring  from  an  application  of  the  same  principles; — and 
making  this  application  to  the  specific  case  in  hand 
becomes  the  interesting  study  and  exercise  of  wit  for 
the  leader  concerned.     It  is  for  him  to  arouse  just  the 
kind  of  spirit  he  needs  for  the  special  work  and  with  the 
particular  men  he  has.    The  spirit  which  holds  the 


18  MILITARY  MANPOWER 

stoker  faithful  to  his  task  in  the  bowels  of  the  ship  is 
different  in  form  from  that  which  animates  the  gun 
crew  on  the  decks  above — yet  both  spring  from  the  same 
sources. 

26.  So  each  arm  of  the  service  trains  its  men  to  play 
their  particular  parts  in  campaign  and  battle,  building 
up  a  spirit  which  will  make  them  perform  their  special 
functions  in  that  strain,  and  roar  and  loss  of  life.     For 
artillery  this  means  the  perfection  of  team  work  in 
the  battery,  cool  precision  and  mathematical  accuracy 
in  launching  projectiles  along  nicely  calculated  tra- 
jectories, to  smash  targets  they  have  never  seen,  or  to 
keep  an  impenetrable  shield  of  high  explosives  in  front 
of  our  advancing  infantry.     The  very  antithesis  of  this 
is  the  "bird-man"  in  the  aerial  service.     Here  is  the 
acme  of  individual  initiative  and  daring,  the  essence  of 
sportsmanship.     Its  spirit  is  best  expressed  by  the 
young  American  aviator  who  wrote  home,  "I  am  over 
here  flying  one  hundred  and  twenty  miles  an  hour. 
Now  I  know  why  birds  sing." 

27.  But  it  is  the  infantryman  who  must  have  the 
severest  type  of  discipline  to  meet  the  strain  of  modern 
battle.     For  him  no  flight  of  bird  or  dash  of  eager  horse 
in  mounted  charge  on  which  to  spend  his  excess  feelings; 
he  has  no  heavy  cannon  whose  immovable  mass  will  not 
betray  his  trembling  nerves.    His  weapon  is  the  sen- 
sitive rifle,  reflecting  in  its  action  the  slightest  flicker  of 
the  nerves,  powerless  to  do  execution  unless  in  hands 
made  steady  by  an  iron  discipline  backed  by  a  cour- 
ageous heart  in  a  body  trained  to  the  highest  pitch  of 


ANALYSIS  AND  EXPLANATION  19 

physical  endurance.  Even  then  his  battle  is  but  half 
won,  for  he  knows  that  victory  may  be  had  only  when 
he  has  closed  in  personal  combat  with  the  enemy.  His 
unconquerable  morale  must  yet  lead  him  steadily  for- 
ward through  unimaginable  obstacles,  fighting  step 
by  step  to  the  culmination  when  he  may  close  man  to 
man  in  the  bayonet  combat,  to  kill  or  be  killed,  depend- 
ing on  the  excellence  of  his  training.  No  braver  work 
than  this  can  be  imagined. 

28.  How  pleasantly  simple  now  seems  the  role  of  the 
cavalryman  in  mounted  combat.     He  rides  along  his 
trajectory,  for  him  the  whistle  of  the  bullet  is  the  wind 
in  his  ears  as  the  line  sweeps  forward  with  a  yell. 
Does  he  stop  to  calculate!     Does  he  care  at  all!     It 
is  the  spirit  of  youth — reckless,  daring,  unconquerable 
youth  that  will  not  be  denied.   That  is  a  Cavalry  charge, 
that  the  fruition  of  the  cavalry  spirit  they  foster. 
General  Rimington  of  the  British  service  speaks  thus 
of  the  cavalry  leader:   "Cunning  he  must  have  for  the 
approach,  nerve  and  unflinching  resolution;  then  reck- 
less and  bloody  minded  intrepidity;  and  withal  the 
power  to  inspire  his  men,  even  the  faint  hearted,  with 
the  certainty  of  success  and  the  joy  of  battle.    Though 
they  know  that  some  cannot  come  back,  still  they  like 
to  be  deceived,  to  die  or  to  be  maimed,  fierce,  high 
hearted,  and  elated." 

29.  Much  of  that  spirit  is  true  for  all  forms  of  personal 
combat,  and  almost  any   soldier   may  attain  it,  sur- 
rounded by  his  fellows,  following  an  intrepid  leader. 
But  how  different  from  this  is  the  discipline  required  for 


20  MILITARY  MANPOWER 

distant  patrolling  to  gain  information  of  an  aggressive 
enemy.  The  infantry  and  artillery  are  the  body  of  an 
army,  the  bone  and  sinew  of  its  mass  and  strength; 
while  these  patrols  are  the  fingers  reaching  out,  brush- 
ing aside,  feeling  for  a  good  hold  in  the  struggle  to  come, 
flashing  back  information  along  the  nerve  channels  to 
the  controlling  mind.  They  must  work  in  small  groups, 
often  as  individual  scouts,  perhaps  a  day's  march  away 
from  their  officers,  alone  with  their  military  consciences. 
None  but  they  will  know  whether  they  have  done  their 
best,  whether  they  have  dared  enough  to  accomplish 
their  mission.  When  opportunity  offered  did  they 
have  the  cool  courage  and  faithfulness  to  go  in  and  get 
the  information,  or  did  they  skulk  in  safety  and  let  the 
opportunity  pass?  It  takes  rare  courage  and  a  highly 
developed  sense  of  duty  for  a  man  to  keep  on  alone,  sole 
survivor  of  his  patrol,  hours  away  from  his  command, 
facing  unknown  dangers  and  exhausting  the  last  re- 
source to  gain  the  information  his  patrol  was  sent  to  get. 
Yet  service  may  demand  this  degree  of  faithfulness  and 
initiative,  and  training  must  develop  a  corresponding 
degree  of  loyalty  to  duty  and  confidence  in  one's  own 
resource  and  judgment.  It  is  the  leader's  task  so  to 
conduct  training  as  to  implant  these  qualities  in  his 
subordinates. 

30.  Discipline  is  then  no  concrete  thing  that  may  be 
supplied  to  troops  on  requisition.  It  is  intangible  and 
psychological,  a  spirit  which  pervades  an  organization, 
the  growth  of  patient,  skillful  culture  on  the  part  of  the 
leader.  Every  great  leader  has  recognized  this,  and  his 


ANALYSIS  AND  EXPLANATION  21 

success  has  been  measured  largely  by  his  ability  to 
inspire  this  spirit  in  his  subordinates.  We  have  the 
great  advantage  to-day  that  we  deal  with  fellow  citizens 
of  democracy,  intelligent,  patriotic,  equally  interested 
with  their  leaders  in  the  success  of  the  cause.  They 
quickly  learn  to  give  willing  obedience  and  faithful 
service  when  they  see  that  these  qualities  are  absolutely 
essential  to  the  successful  working  of  the  war  machine. 
It  is  only  because  the  highest  type  of  discipline  may  be 
built  on  this  basis  that  it  is  at  all  possible  to  train  these 
civilians  so  quickly  for  war.  But  to  do  this  requires 
that  the  leader  clearly  understand  this  psychological 
situation,  and  use  to  advantage  this  mental  attitude 
and  individual  intelligence  of  his  men.  He  cannot  do 
it  by  treating  them  as  he  would  impressed  seamen  or 
ignorant  serfs.  Those  methods  must  necessarily  do 
more  damage  than  good  to  the  discipline  of  individual 
initiative  and  resource  which  the  modern  battle  field 
demands. 

31.  Morale.  Throughout  military  service  we  hear 
constantly  of  morale,  how  it  is  the  most  important  pos- 
session of  troops  and  how  with  the  morale  ten  men  can 
beat  one  hundred.  Its  value  is  universally  recognized 
— yet  so  many  leaders  seem  to  assume  that  their  men 
are  going  to  have  it  just  naturally.  They  take  no 
measures  to  inspire  it — even  worse,  their  conduct  of 
office  is  often  such  as  positively  to  injure  and  even  to 
destroy  the  morale  of  their  subordinates.  It  is  almost 
criminal  to  allow  such  men  to  be  responsible  for  training 
men  for  battle.  They  are  quite  as  dangerous  in  train- 


22  MILITARY  MANPOWER 

ing  as  in  actually  leading  in  the  battle  itself.  War  has 
taught  the  need  of  careful  attention  to  this  matter,  of 
seeing  to  it  that  all  military  instructors  and  leaders  have 
the  ability  and  inclination  so  to  conduct  themselves 
both  in  training  and  in  actual  leading  as  to  establish  and 
maintain  a  high  morale  throughout  their  particular 
group.  To  acquire  this  ability  has  become  an  essential 
part  of  an  officer's  training;  and  the  development  of  the 
morale  of  the  army  is  now  the  special  function  of  a 
section  of  the  General  Staff.  Morale  is  recognized  as 
essential  not  alone  in  the  fighting  line,  but  in  the  lines 
of  supply,  and  throughout  the  nation  behind  the  army. 
And  it  must  be  based  on  honesty — on  honest  convictions 
as  to  the  cause,  and  on  honestly  informed  convictions 
as  to  our  ability  to  perform. 

32.  The  morale  of  the  fighting  line  has  been  defined  as 
"That  instinctive  feeling  of  strength  and  superiority; 
that  which  at  the  very  outset  gives  a  feeling  of  confi- 
dence, and  an  assurance  of  victory  through  our  own  un- 
conquerable ability. ' '  Having  the  morale  therefore  means 
that  no  matter  what  obstacle  or  enemy  we  face,  we 
meet  it  absolutely  confident  of  our  ability  to  overcome 
it.  CONFIDENCE — a  justified  confidence — is  therefore 
the  real  foundation  of  morale.  It  is  seated  in  man's 
loftiest  sentiments — patriotism,  pride  of  race,  righteous- 
ness of  the  cause,  abhorrence  of  the  enemy's  crimes 
against  humanity,  determination  to  overwhelm  him, 
devotion  and  self-sacrifice,  regard  for  comrades,  loyalty 
to  leader,  and  in  the  glory  of  individual  self-respect,  skill, 
vigorous  health  and  general  fitness  as  a  superior  human. 


ANALYSIS  AND  EXPLANATION  23 

It  is  developed  through  intimate  talks  by  the  leader 
with  his  men  on  all  these  subjects,  in  which  he  arouses 
these  feelings,  always  pointing  the  way  to  ultimate 
victory  and  instilling  cheerfulness,  pride  and  determina- 
tion. But  even  more  it  is  developed  by  proper  training 
and  in  the  daily  handling  of  the  men— in  so  handling 
the  individual  as  to  develop  his  self-respect  and  con- 
fidence in  the  excellence  of  his  instruction  and  in  his 
personal  fitness;  in  so  training  the  team  in  precise 
drills  and  successfully  conducted  minor  tactical  exercises 
that  each  member  is  made  confident  of  the  skill,  team- 
work and  cooperation  of  his  fellows;  and  above  all  in 
the  leader's  having  so  conducted  himself  as  to  have 
inspired  the  men's  confidence  in  his  ability,  physical 
stamina,  self-control,  judgment  and  courage. 

33.  Too  few  officers  have  appreciated  the  importance 
of  this  requirement  of  training,  or  made  it  the  constant 
influence  it  should  be  in  their  conduct  of  office.  They 
do  not  seem  to  realize  that  they  are  being  constantly 
weighed  by  their  men,  every  word  and  act,  on  the 
drill  field  or  in  the  office,  building  or  destroying  the 
confidence  of  the  men  in  themselves  or  in  the  ability 
of  their  leader.  In  reality  the  psychological  effect 
should  always  be  a  prime  consideration  in  determining 
not  alone  what  to  do  and  say,  but  how  to  do  and  say  it. 
The  leader  should  seek  always  to  get  the  best  effect 
on  the  spirit  of  the  organization,  to  build  its  morale 
and  justify  his  leadership.  It  is  remarkable  in  what 
little  matters  this  becomes  important.  It  is  so  easy  to 
disgust  men  by  wasting  their  time  and  energy,  by  fool 


24  MILITARY  MANPOWER 

explanations  and  exhibitions  at  drill,  by  generally 
being  the  last  to  bring  around,  and  in  a  thousand  seem- 
ing trifles,  all  of  which  point  to  one's  being  just  short  of 
the  keen  leader  who  never  misses  anything  for  the 
advantage  of  his  organization.  And  each  of  these 
instances  properly  handled  would  have  added  one  cubit 
more  to  the  stature  of  his  just  claim  to  leadership,  to 
the  pride  of  his  outfit,  and  to  their  confidence  in  being 
able  to  win  under  his  leadership. 

34.  To  develop  morale  on  the  drill  or  maneuver  field 
requires  that  the  leader  be  sure  and  accurate,  cheerful, 
self-controlled,  vigorous  and   undismayed    no  matter 
what  the  discouragement.     He  must  find  good  per- 
formance to  commend  it,  and  by  encouragement  and 
praise  increase  his  men's  endeavor,  and  confidence  in 
their  own  ability.     And  each  outfit  should  have  a  few 
drill  movements  which  it  can  do  perfectly — for  it  is 
from  perfect  performance  that  the  feeling  comes  in  the 
men  that  they  are  good,  that  each  knows  and  can  play 
his  part  perfectly  in  the  team,  and  that  they  will  be 
able  to  carry  through  no  matter  what  they  meet.     This 
feeling  can  be  seen  in  their  animated  confident  faces  as 
they  complete  such  performance; — it  is  the  reward   of 
the  good  drill  master.    These  psychological  objects  of 
drill   supply    a   keen   interest   to   the   instructor  who 
senses  them;  and  he  who  appreciates  this  object  in  each 
form  of  instruction  soon  makes  himself  one  of  the  few 
really  good  drill  masters. 

35.  Even  more  than  "Discipline"    the  subject    of 
Morale  is  intimately  connected  with  that  of  Leader- 


ANALYSIS  AND  EXPLANATION  25 

ship.  While  only  an  explanation  of  its  meaning  is 
attempted  here,  in  the  discussion  of  the  principles  of 
leadership  we  find  their  constant  application  in  how 
they  affect  morale. 

36.  Because  in  training  a  football  team  we  seek  the 
same  psychological  effect  as  in  training  a  military  squad, 
morale  being  half  the  battle;  and  because  we  all  under- 
stand football  language,  the  following  meaty  remarks 
of  our  old  coach  at  West  Point  are  quoted  here  to 
illustrate  practically  the  meaning  of  morale: 

"You  must  begin  by  mastering  the  fundamental 
plays  of  the  game.  Merely  to  know  what  they  are  will 
not  answer  the  purpose  at  all;  you  must  be  able  to 
execute  them  completely  and  accurately,  at  any  time, 
and  under  any  circumstances.  And  each  one  of  you 
must  know  the  part  to  be  done  by  each  of  the  other 
members  of  the  team.  This  is  the  very  foundation  of 
teamwork,  and  without  teamwork  your  efforts  will 
not  be  successful.  It  is  up  to  each  man  to  master  these 
rudiments  at  the  start,  and  he  must  be  honest  with 
himself  about  it,  and  be  his  own  severest  critic.  One 
man  may  spoil  the  work  of  the  whole  team  by  pretend- 
ing he  knows,  when  he  does  not. 

"Such  knowledge  and  ability  are  invaluable  in  both 
offensive  and  defensive  play;  and  the  team  which  has 
acquired  them  has  confidence  in  its  own  ability  to  win 
on  the  merits  by  making  each  play  go. 

"The  best  plays  on  the  offense  are  often  the  simplest 
plays,  when  they  are  made  by  a  team  which  knows  it 
can  make  them  go.  A  team  which  cannot  make  simple 


26  MILITARY  MANPOWER 

plays  well,  can  never  do  anything  worth  while  with 
intricate  plays.  Many  a  championship  game  has  been 
lost  because  the  team  had  no  simple  play  by  which  it 
knew  it  could  make  a  yard.  The  best  defense  can 
hardly  keep  a  team  from  making  distance  when  it 
knows  how  to  make  a  simple  formation,  and  makes  the 
play  go  with  a  spirit  born  of  the  knowledge  that  no 
mistakes  will  be  made,  and  that  the  same  play  has 
always  made  ground  before.  You  can  get  along  and 
do  well  without  intricate  plays  or  brilliant  individual 
effort,  but  will  fail  if  you  do  not  know  thoroughly  the 
'A.  B.  C.'  of  the  game." 

37.  Leadership.     The  requirements  of  the  modern 
battle  field  demand  a  new  type  of  soldier.     He  may  no 
longer  be  an  unthinking  bayonet  with  individuality 
merged  into  a  solid  group  whose  mass  and  common  pur- 
pose are  to  crush  the  enemy.     To-day  he  has  to  think, 
to  use  his  individual  resource,  initiative  and  judgment. 
Any  private  may  find  himself  called  upon  to  function  as 
a  leader  in  some  local  emergency.     It  is  the  task  of 
modern  training  to  fit  the  various  types  that  make  up 
our  civilian  soldiery  so  they  may  meet  these  responsi- 
bilities successfully.     This  requires  more  than  the  old 
time  methods  of  hammering  unintelligently  at  close  order 
drills,  and  forbids  that  rigid  unfeeling  discipline  which 
is  calculated  to  destroy  initiative  and  manliness,  and  to 
make  of  the  soldier  an  unthinking  cog  in  the  machine. 

38.  The  development  of  modern  man  as  an  /individual 
— a  self-respecting,  self-thinking,  responsible  member 
of  the  community  in  which  he  moves,  whose  opinion  is 


ANALYSIS  AND  EXPLANATION  27 

asked  and  counts  in  matters  of  government  and  regula- 
tion— has  made  of  him  fit  material  ready  to  the  hand  of 
the  instructor  to  be  trained  for  these  new  military 
requirements.  His  inherent  qualities  of  manliness,  high 
purpose,  and  a  self  respecting  individuality  which  yet 
recognizes  its  responsibility  as  a  citizen — all  these 
developed  qualities  make  him  potentially  a  splendid  tool 
in  the  hands  of  a  skillful  master,  and  a  dangerous  one 
in  the  hands  of  a  bungler.  To  handle  these  tools  skill- 
fully has  become  a  recognized  art,  which  must  be  used 
by  every  military  leader  of  every  grade  and  is  therefore 
an  absolute  essential  to  military  education. 

39.  This  art  of  handling  men  is  called  Leadership,  and 
during   the   late   war   became   a   study   for   practical 
application  in  all  armies.     On  his  excellence  in  the 
practice  of  this  art  depends  every  military  leader's 
ability  to  deliver  that  superior  manpower  of  his  men 
which  is  to  make  his  unit  victorious.     In  the  past  this 
was  the  function  of  the  few  "born  leaders"  who  seemed 
to  know  instinctively  how  to  inspire  others  to  give  their 
uttermost.     But  these  born  leaders  were  far  too  few 
to  meet  modern  requirements,  so  we  were  forced  to 
analyze  their  natural  art,  and  reduce  it  to  principles 
which  could  be  studied  and  practiced  by  others. 

40.  This  art  is  based  on  the  fact  that  there  is  in  every 
man  a  tremendous  latent  force  which  may  be  aroused 
and  used  by  the  skillful  leader  who  can  inspire  the  man's 
loyalty,  pride,  and  ambition  to  do  his  utmost  for  the 
glory  of  his  group  and  the  honor  of  his  cherished  leader. 
The  poor  leader  leaves  all  this  enthusiastic  devotion  and 


28  MILITARY  MANPOWER 

service  dormant  in  his  men,  and  therefore  commands 
only  mediocrity.  His  men  will  do  just  well  enough  to 
conform  to  cold  requirements.  The  letter  of  the  law 
will  be  their  sole  guide,  and  they  may  even  seek  means 
to  evade  that.  Such  a  group  is  the  weak  link  in  the 
chain,  and  will  break  first  in  the  strain  of  hardship  or 
battle.  The  former  group  may  be  relied  upon  to  win 
the  key  position,  and  by  example  of  its  high  spirit  and 
elan  carry  forward  the  whole  line.  It  is  the  military 
leader's  plain  duty  to  learn  how  to  develop  to  the  full 
these  potential  forces  in  his  men,  and  for  this  purpose 
he  studies  the  principles  of  leadership,  and  the  psy- 
chology of  training. 

41.  Leadership  is  an  art,  not  an  exact  science.  One 
may  not  hope  to  win  to  it  by  learning  specific  rules  to 
guide  his  conduct.  No  two  leaders  will  succeed  in 
exactly  the  same  way,  for  each  must  work  through  his 
own  personality.  It  is  a  question  rather  of  sincerity 
of  purpose  to  play  the  game  fairly;  of  having  a  sym- 
pathetic understanding  of  the  human  anjmal  one  is  to 
work  with  and  of  what  the  laws  of  life  make  mankind 
do  under  various  circumstances;  and  of  having  an 
appreciation  of  one's  own  personality  and  how  it  affects 
others.  It  becomes  a  live  vital  study,  to  which  one's 
own  personal  experiences  bring  the  most  valuable  con- 
tributions. Its  infinite  variety  of  elements  furnish 
an  unending  interest,  while  success  in  dealing  with  its 
problems  brings  constant  gratification,  especially  in 
seeing  the  development  of  stronger  character  and  in- 
creased efficiency  in  one's  subordinates. 


ANALYSIS  AND  EXPLANATION  29 

42.  Using  Human  Tools.    Let  us  now  see  what  it 
actually  should  mean  to  the  leader  that  the  military 
machine  is  built  up  of  human  beings.     It  means  in 
brief  that  the  tools  he  is  to  work  with  are  human 
beings,  and  that  he  must  learn  how  to  handle  them. 
The  men  handle  the  material  of  war,  and  must  be  skilled 
in  its  niceties;  the  leaders  handle  the  men,  and  should 
equally  be  skilled  in  their  capabilities.     If  a  man  has 
won  promotion  from  the  ranks,  his  future  success  no 
longer  depends  on  his  skill  in  using  the  arms  he  has  been 
using.     It  is  now  his  function  to  direct  others  in  using 
them.     These  others,  these  human  beings  such  as  he 
was,  are  now  to  be  his  "arms."    And  as  he  won  his 
promotion  by  training  his  body,  brain,  and  nerves  to  use 
his  original  arms  to  advantage,  so  now  he  may  succeed 
only  by  learning  how  to  use  skillfully  these  new  human 
ones.     He  will  find  them  sensitive  difficult  instruments, 
capable  of  splendid  accomplishment  if  skillfully  handled, 
but  blunt  and  even  dangerous  in  unskilled  hands. 

43.  As  a -first  step  toward  learning  to  use  them,  the 
leader  should  get  at  least  a  crude  conception  of  what  this 
human  being  really  is,  and  how  he  is  controlled  in  his 
daily  walk.     Let  us  therefore  for  a  moment  consider 
man  the  animal.     We  find  him  in  his  beginnings  run- 
ning naked  and  alone  with  the  beasts  in  the  primeval 
forest — without  knowledge  of  community  life,  even  of 
family  life,  and  not  knowing  the  use  of  human  speech. 
But  for  his  "will  to  improve"  he  was  apparently  no 
more  highly  endowed  by  nature  than  some  of  his  fellow 
species.    Yet  that  will  to  improve  has  in  the  processes 


30  MILITARY  MANPOWER 

of  time  enabled  him  to  develop  within  himself  his 
present  marvelous  organization  of  nerve  centers  and 
coordinated  control,  and  through  the  power  of  his  self 
invented  language  to  store  his  brain  cells  with  the 
wisdom  of  the  ages.  Thus  enabled  to  analyze  and  to 
reason,  he  has  progressed  step  by  step  until  he  has 
reached  his  present  mastery  of  the  forces  of  nature. 
To-day  he  may  fly  in  the  air  higher  than  the  eagle,  may 
work  at  will  beneath  the  ocean,  may  sit  at  ease  and  listen 
to  the  natural  voice  of  a  friend  through  thousands  of 
miles  of  distance,  or  may  analyze  the  composition  of  the 
heavenly  bodies  and  predict  with  accuracy  their  every 
movement.  And  what  the  race  has  thus  accomplished 
in  development  through  the  ages,  each  man  is  privileged 
to  accomplish  in  his  lifetime.  For  he  is  born  into  the 
world  with  brain  cells  empty  and  with  less  nerve  control 
than  a  kitten,  but  endowed  with  hereditary  capacity 
and  that  wonderful  will  to  improve,  which  enable  him 
to  talk  and  to  read  in  early  childhood  and  to  develop 
his  faculties  in  time  to  a  degree  limited  only  by  the 
determined  purpose  of  his  ambition. 

44.  Such  is  man  in  the  outward  manifestations  of  his 
prowess.  Meantime  he  is  a  creature  almost  pathet- 
ically responsive  to  his  inherent  instincts  and  in  his 
daily  walk  largely  controlled  by  habit.  It  was  the 
beneficent  intention  of  nature  to  leave  man's  mind  free 
for  the  contemplation  of  higher  things,  free  to  form 
visions  of  better  things  and  to  reason  out  the  means  for 
attaining  them.  She  therefore  relieved  his  mind  of  the 
trivial  cares  of  deciding  just  what  to  do  in  the  thousands 


ANALYSIS  AND  EXPLANATION  31 

of  cases  for  action  in  his  daily  life,  and  designed  him  to 
do  all  these  normal  things  in  response  to  the  impulse 
of  natural  instincts,  or  in  unconscious  obedience  to  the 
direction  of  habits  which  he  commences  to  form  in 
infancy  and  continues  to  form  throughout  his  develop- 
ment. 

45.  So  we  find  man  a  creature  of  almost  unlimited 
capacity,  but  pathetically  sensitive  to  his  environment 
and   treatment   because   so   helplessly   responsive   to 
instincts  and  habits.    And  this  capable  yet  sensitive 
animal,  man,  is  to  be  an  instrument  in  the  hands  of 
another,  a  man  like  himself,  except  that  he  has  qualified 
to  be  the  leader.     How  reasonable  that  this  leader 
should  have  to  give  serious  thought  to  this  situation, 
and  seek  to  understand  nature's  powerful  influences  in 
guiding  the  actions  of  both  himself  and  his  men.     What 
folly  for  him  to  expect  to  be  able  to  handle  them 
blindly,  hit  or  miss,  without  consideration  of  man's 
peculiarities  and  the  fundamental  things  that  control 
him. 

46.  Right  to  Self  Respect.     Perhaps  the  most  im- 
portant of  these  fundamentals  for  the  military  leader  to 
realize  is  the  deep  seated  desire  of  every  individual  to 
maintain  his  self-respect  and  to  have  his  right  to  self- 
respect  recognized  by  those  about  him.     The  biggest 
step  man  ever  took  in  the  attainment  of  civilization 
was  that  of  the  ancient  fathers  when  they  discarded 
the  worship  of  Sun  and  Fire,  and  conceived  a  God  en- 
dowed with  human  attributes.     They  thus  gave  man 
the  right  to  claim  that  he  was  "made  in  the  image  of 


32  MILITARY  MANPOWER 

God."  On  that  man  founded  his  philosophy  of  life 
and  has  more  and  more  demanded  and  fought  for  and 
sometimes  won  a  recognition  of  his  claim  to  self-respect. 
"Made  in  the  image  of  God;" — he  resented  being  lashed 
as  a  slave  in  the  galleys  or  driven  as  one  in  the  chain 
gangs;  he  felt  the  indignity  of  being  a  serf;  and  he  came 
to  realize  the  inconsistency  of  being  arbitrarily  gov- 
erned. He  has  thus  slowly  fought  his  way  upward 
toward  his  ideal,  and  has  won  his  right  to  self-respect  in 
government  and  in  community  living,  to  the  profit  of 
both. 

47.  Citizens  of  Democracy.  Out  of  this  evolution 
came  democracy;  and  the  second  fundamental  for  the 
leader  is  to  appreciate  that  in  handling  men  to-day 
he  is  no  longer  handling  serfs  or  hirelings.  His  men 
are  citizens  of  democracy — made  or  in  the  making. 
Many  officers  have  not  realized  this,  or  thought  out 
what  it  should  mean  in  determining  their  methods 
of  control.  In  reality  it  is  the  only  foundation  for 
any  intelligent  modern  system  of  discipline.  Democ- 
racy requires  of  each  citizen  that  he  be  a  self-respecting, 
self -thinking,  responsible  individual,  capable  of  mak- 
ing decisions  and  acting  on  them  in  his  civil  capacity. 
These  qualities  of  citizenship  are  demanded  for  par- 
ticipation in  community  affairs  and  are  publicly 
appealed  to  for  political  purposes.  They  are  of  the 
atmosphere  in  which  each  man  lives  as  a  member  of 
the  community.  It  is  only  reasonable  that  the  self- 
same individuals  who  operate  under  the  principles  of 
democracy  in  all  their  general  affairs  should  do  better 


ANALYSIS  AND  EXPLANATION  33 

in  the  army  under  democratic  rather  than  autocratic 
control.  The  rights  of  individuality  and  of  self-direc- 
tion have  been  hardly  won  and  are  dearly  held.  They 
do  much  toward  making  the  democratic  citizen  the 
able  man  he  is  to-day,  and  are  in  reality  a  splendid  basis 
for  his  control. 

48.  The  highest  type  of  army  discipline  is  developed 
on  a  thorough  recognition  of  these  very  qualities  in  the 
men.     It  is  practiced  by  all  who  have  appreciated  the 
meanings  of  the  modern  social  and  political  develop- 
ment of  the  individual,  and  learned  how  to  benefit  by 
its  advantages  for  getting  efficiency.     There  still  exist, 
however,  many  unthinking  officers  who  get  their  ideas 
of  discipline  from  the  traditional  rules  formerly  evolved 
for  the  control  of  serfs.     But  their  day  is  rapidly  pass- 
ing, as  the  modern  principle  is  more  and  more  widely 
accepted  that  the  man  in  ranks  is  an  intelligent  self- 
respecting  individual,  that  he  may  be  interested  equally 
with  the  leader  in  the  success  of  the  cause,  and  that  in 
large  measure  he  is  capable  of  adding  to  its  success  out 
of  his  own  individual  effort  and  intelligence. 

49.  The  governing  idea  is  therefore  for  the  leader  to 
build  up  the  self-respect  of  his  men,  and  to  appeal  to  it 
to  control  their  actions.     He  does  not  want  them  to 
be  dogs;  he  must  never  treat  them  like  dogs.     He  wants 
them  to  show  intelligence;  he  must  show  confidence 
that  they  have  intelligence.     He  wants  them  able  to 
make  decisions  and  to  act  on  them  for  the  common  good; 
he  therefore  tells  them  what  is  to  be  done  and  why, 
not  how  to  do  it,  and  thus  develops  their  resourcefulness 


34  MILITARY  MANPOWER 

and  initiative.  He  wants  their  cooperation  in  loyal 
teamwork;  he  therefore  asks  their  ideas  as  to  methods, 
encourages  their  suggestions,  and  assumes  that  they  are 
intelligently  interested  in  the  common  success  and  able 
to  bring  something  of  value  toward  winning  it. 

50.  Personal  Character.  A  third  fundamental  con- 
sideration is  to  appreciate  how  modern  conditions 
have  made,  the  possession  of  personal  character  an 
essential  to  successful  leadership.  The  development 
of  the  individual,  self-conscious  that  he  is  a  reasoning 
being  with  the  rights  and  responsibilities  of  self  deter- 
mination, has  put  into  the  discard  the  divine  rights 
of  kings  and  the  infallibility  of  sphinx-like  utterances 
from  those  in  authority.  The  man  who  rules  to-day 
does  it  through  personal  contacts  with  his  subordinates. 
He  mus^t  therefore  really  have  the  personal  character. 
It  is  of  course  inherent  in  us  to  endow  the  holder  of  an 
office  with  those  attributes  of  dignity  and  personal 
character  which  should  go  with  it.  But  personal 
contacts  are  going  to  pierce  this  hereditary  veil,  and 
will  soon  expose  the  man  for  what  he  really  is.  And 
he  cannot  make  good  unless  we  find  him  possessed 
of  character,  find  him  a  man  who  is  purposeful  and 
genuine, — who  ajways  keeps  his  word,  who  lives  up 
to  the  principles  of  the  square  deal,  and  who  appreciates 
that  he  is  dealing  with  humans  and  is  accordingly 
considerate.  Such  qualities  preclude  his  showing  in- 
justice, deceit,  indifference,  or  brutality.  They  thus 
eliminate  fear  and  suspicion  from  the  minds  of  those 
about  him  and  give  free  play  to  their  better  instincts, 


ANALYSIS  AND  EXPLANATION  35 

which  makes  for  getting  their  best  efforts  either  as 
followers  or  as  co-workers.  It  is  clear  then  that  it  is 
vitally  important  to  give  careful  thought  in  the  selection 
of  leaders  to  their  personal  character;  and  that  this 
possession  of  character  must  come  to  be  the  sine  qua 
non  for  candidates  for  office,  political,  civil,  or  military. 

51.  Instincts  and  Habits.  A  fourth  fundamental  is 
to  appreciate  the  big  part  played  in  man's  control  by 
his  own  personal  instincts  and  habits.  "Man  is  a 
reasoning  creature.  God's  image."  Yes; — but  he  is 
also  the  willing  slave  of  instinctive  impulses  and  per- 
sonal habits.  He  uses  his  reason  to  determine  the 
course  he  will  pursue,  not  to  regulate  the  multitudinous 
details  of  his  actions  in  carrying  it  on.  As  planned  by 
nature,  these  minor  actions  are  directed  by  natural 
impulses  and  personal  habits.  Impulses  and  habits — 
they  rule  almost  our  every  act.  It  is  remarkable  when 
we  stop  to  think  of  it  and  realize  how  few  things  we  do 
actually  as  the  result  of  thinking.  Thus  in  a  well 
ordered  life  a  man  may  get  up  in  the  morning,  bathe, 
shave,  dress,  and  go  to  breakfast  without  having  to 
make  a  conscious  decision.  Instead  of  having  to 
decide  which  shoe  to  put  on  first,  he  may  occupy  his 
mind  with  thoughts  of  the  day's  work.  Habit  guides 
him  without  thought  through  all  these  necessary  steps 
which  he  must  take  daily. 

62.  The  interesting  fact  to  the  leader  is  not  alone  that 
these  habits  control  so  absolutely,  but  that  any  habit 
may  be  easily  and  "unconsciously  formed  by  repetition  of 
the  act  or  thought;  and  that  a  habit  once  formed  is 


36  MILITARY  MANPOWER 

overcome  only  by  conscious  effort  and  even  by  deter- 
mined action  of  the  will.  The  leader  uses  this  in 
training  his  men.  By  repetition  he  makes  them  form 
habits  so  fixed  that  they  will  control  the  men's  actions 
even  under  the  stress  of  battle  conditions.  By  insisting 
on  certain  things  always  being  done  in  certain  ways,  he 
establishes  in  them  habits  of  daily  conduct  which  make 
his  routine  administration  of  duties  free  from  constant 
care  of  details.  A  wise  officer  finds  the  reason  for 
many  of  the  difficulties  and  seeming  derelictions  of  his 
men  in  the  fact  that  they  were  the  acts  of  previously 
formed  habits  not  yet  eliminated.  For  this  reason 
also  a  wise  officer  prefers  to  train  green  men  rather  than 
old  soldiers.  He  knows  he  can  readily  inculcate  in 
them  the  habits  he  wants  them  to  have,  and  without 
the  great  difficulty  of  eradicating  the  previously  formed 
habits  which  he  cloes  not  like. 

53.  Equally  common  with  habits  in  their  control  of 
the  actions  of  man,  and  equally  important  as  a  con- 
sideration for  the  leader,  are  the  impulses  to  action 
that  come  from  natural  instincts.  Of  course  it  is 
true  that  man's  will  and  determination  are  stronger 
than  his  instincts,  and  that  if  they  are  set  to  any  given 
purpose  they  can  force  every  instinctive  impulse  from 
his  field  of  consciousness  and  hold  his  actions  to  the 
predetermined  course.  But  such  control  of  man's 
actions  is  fatiguing  to  the  man,  and  does  not  give  the 
results  that  come  when  his  mind  is  happily  at  ease  and 
free  to  entertain  the  impulses  from  the  constructive 
instincts  with  which  nature  has  bountifully  endowed 


ANALYSIS  AND  EXPLANATION  37 

him  for  the  good  of  the  race.  Thus  necessity  may 
make  a  man  determine  to  do  his  work  in  spite  of  brutal 
treatment  and  injured  self -respect,  and  he  will  carry 
through  the  day's  work  well  enough  to  hold  his  job, 
but  not  much  better.  Good  work,  anything  like  the 
maximum  of  a  man's  accomplishment,  cannot  be 
produced  in  that  spirit.  Such  work  comes  only  with 
the  free  play  of  man's  better  instincts.  It  should  be 
clear  then  that  the  leader  who  controls  through  appeal 
to  these  instincts  will  get  better  results  then  he  who 
rules  by  force  or  the  compulsion  of  circumstance.  A 
good  leader  must  therefore  give  thought  to  these  things, 
until  he  comes  to  feel  instinctively  how  men  react  to 
the  ordinary  things  of  life.  These  are  matters  of  fre- 
quent reference  in  discussing  the  principles  of  leadership. 
54.  Instinct  of  Leadership.  Among  these  instincts, 
those  of  the  greatest  interest  to  the  leader  are  naturally 
the  instincts  of  leadership — the  instinct  to  lead  others 
and  the  instinct  to  follow  others  when  we  think  they 
know  the  answer  better  than  we.  The  manifestations 
of  both  these  instincts  are  very  common  in  our  daily 
life,  which  shows  their  availability  and  value  to  the 
leader  as  agents  for  controlling  men.  He  should  there- 
fore understand  why  they  exist  and  how  to  appeal  to 
them.  Why  is  it  that  mankind  is  always  wanting  to 
proselyte,  and  preach,  and  teach,  and  step  to  the  front 
with  suggestions?  And  why  is  it  that  he  so  readily  fol- 
lows another  who  presents  any  proposition  which  seems 
reasonable?  These  instincts  are  implanted  in  man  to 
make  him  play  his  part  in  the  world's  progress.  The 


MILITARY  MANPOWER 

whole  scheme  of  the  universe,  physical  and  spiritual,  is  , 
one  of  development  and  progress, — of  making  every-  I 
thing  engage  in  a  constant  effort  to  rise  to  a  higher 
plane.  Ma"n  was  intended  to  be  the  foremost  instru- 
ment of  this  purpose  to  advance  civilization.'  His 
instincts  were  given  him  to  ensure  progress,  to  help  the 
race  win  along,  to  lead  others  where  he  felt  he  knew  best 
what  was  to  be  done,  to  follow  where  he  felt  that  another 
knew  better  than  he.  To  want  to  lead  is  therefore  a 
natural  instinct  and  a  good  one;  and  any  man  may  take 
honest  pride  in  striving  to  qualify  as  a  leader. 

55.  It  is  an  important  point  that  the  instinct  to  follow 
is  likewise  an  instinct  for  progress,  as  this  necessitates 
the  would-be  leader  to  make  his  men  feel  that  he  best 
knows  the  way,  that  his  leadership  will  bring  the  best 
results.     This  is  a  fundamental  thought  in  an  under- 
standing of  leadership,  and  explains  why  knowledge  of 
his  job  is  essential  to  a  leader,  and  why  bluster  and 
arrogance  seem  so  ridiculous.     It  is  clear  then  that  a 
man  is  appointed  leader  because  it  is  believed  that  he 
can  get  the  best  results;  and  his  men  will  measure  his 
ability  as  such  by  the  good  work  accomplished  under 
his  guidance.    Inefficiency,  lost  time  and  energy,  indeci- 
sion and  stupidity,  undermine  his  hold  on  the  men;  while 
the  opposites  inspire  them  to  enthusiastic  following. 

56.  Another  thought  of  importance  in  this  connec- 
tion is  the  significance  of  the  word  "leader.**     It  means 
that  this  man  is  the  foremost  of  the  group,  of  his  com- 
panions.   A  leader  is  not  a  lord  or  dictator;  he  is  one 
with  his  men — the  leading  one — knowing  their  pulse 


ANALYSIS  AND  EXPLANATION  39 

and  their  passions,  leading  because  of  superior  prepara- 
tion, experience  and  ability,  not  driving  through  brute 
force.  He  should  keep  his  kinship  with  these  fellows 
whom  he  leads,  not  allow  himself  to  feel  that  he  has 
become  a  human  being  of  a  different  class  or  clay  to  lord 
it  over  them. 

57.  Nothing  so  surely  ruins  the  success  of  the  newly 
appointed  leader  as  a  suggestion  of  pomp  and  vain- 
glory in  his  demeanor.  A  case  of  swollen  ego  has 
wrecked  many  careers.  It  is  quickly  noted  by  the  men 
as  an  evidence  of  smallness  of  soul  and  limited  ex- 
perience. Modesty,  courtesy,  quiet  dignity,  even 
humility,  are  characteristics  of  greatness  of  character 
and  broad  experience.  It  is  dangerous  for  the  leader  to 
admit  his  self-importance  even  to  himself.  Magnifying 
his  own  importance  is  likely  to  make  him  take  credit  to 
himself  that  should  have  gone  to  his  men,  make  him 
consider  his  own  welfare  when  he  should  consider  theirs, 
and  end  by  betraying  him  as  unfit  for  the  leadership. 

#8.  Personality.  The  last  of  these  fundamental  con- 
siderations of  man,  and  by  far  the  most  important  to 
the  personal  success  of  any  leader,  is  an  appreciation  of 
what  his  own  personality  means  for  success  or  failure  in 
the  effect  it  has  upon  his  fellows.  In  some  way  it  should 
be  possible  to  make  each  man  realize  the  truth  of  this, 
and  thus  give  it  due  consideration.  The  leader  responds 
to  the  fact  that  he  must  learn  how  to  use  his  human 
being  tools,  yet  often  ignores  the  equally  important  fact 
that  he  has  to  use  these  tools  through  the  instrumen- 
tality of  his  own  personality.  His  ability  and  success 


40  MILITARY  MANPOWER 

will  largely  depend  on  how  this  personality  of  his  im- 
presses others,  on  how  it  affects  these  sentient  tools. 
His  purpose  and  character,  his  personal  bearing  and 
manner,  the  tones  of  his  voice,  his  habits  and  way  of 
looking  at  things — all  the  manifestations  of  his  per- 
sonality are  more  or  less  important  influences  in  deter- 
mining his  ability  to  handle  others.  Yet  the  average  of 
leaders  not  only  accepts  himself  complacently  as  he  is, 
but  actually  ignores  the  advantages  of  even  finding  out 
what  he  is,  let  alone  trying  to  improve  himself. 

69.  The  progress  of  the  race  depends  upon  the 
development  of  the  individual; — albeit  in  cooperation 
with  his  fellows.  In  consideration  of  this  fact  nature 
apparently  designed  man  to  accept  complacently  his 
own  personality  and  thus  be  content  to  use  and  develop 
it  without  being  discouraged  because  he  was  not  as 
some  other  man.  It  is  certainly  true  that  we  rarely 
£nd  a  man  who  would  exchange  his  personality  for  that 
of  another.  But  nature  never  intended  this  com- 
placency to  go  to  the  point  of  ignoring  all  possibility  of 
improvement,  and  even  of  failing  to  use  understandingly 
the  personality  one  does  have.  The  great  trouble  with 
mankind  is  that  they  generally  see  themselves  only 
as  they  are  reflected  in  the  near  by  mirror.  They  rarely 
get  the  perspective  of  themselves  as  they  really  exist 
in  the  life  around  them;  and  so  they  miss  the  benefit 
of  measuring  their  egos  by  comparison  with  the  realities 
of  life.  It  would  help  us  all  "to  see  ourselves  as  others 
see  us."  We  could  then  learn  each  how  to  use  his 
personality  advantageously  from  seeing  how  it  affected 


ANALYSIS  AND  EXPLANATION  41 

others,  and  we  would  then  lose  some  of  our  arrogance 
from  seeing  what  unimportant  individuals  we  really 
are  after  all.  It  is  good  for  the  soul  of  any  man  to  visit 
some  height  like  the  tower  of  the  Woolworth  building 
and  thence  view  humanity  on  the  earth  below  him, 
hurrying  to  and  fro  on  its  self-important  business. 
These  humans  thus  appear  of  about  the  size  and  im- 
portance of  ants;  and  the  spectator  is  led  to  realize  the 
unimportance  of  any  one  individual  man  in  comparison 
with  the  world  about  him,  and  to  wonder  about  how 
big  he  himself  appears  to  the  distant  Eye  of  Omnipo- 
tence. He  may  thus  develop  a  wholesome  humility 
which  may  lead  him  to  fit  himself  to  play  his  part  more 
reasonably. 

60.  Giving  thought  to  oneself  and  to  the  meanings  of 
those  things  that  affect  the  relations  and  control  of  men 
is  essential  to  acquiring  leadership.  It  is  what  we 
ourselves  believe  and  feel  and  live — what  comes  out  of 
our  own  inner  consciousness — that  will  make  it  possible 
for  us  to  appear  before  others  as  their  leader.  Even 
the  inspired  Leader  withdrew  into  the  wilderness  for 
long  inner  communion  before  He  essayed  the  responsi- 
bilities of  leadership.  We  should  hardly  expect  to  lead 
even  in  our  small  way  without  some  preparation.  And 
this  preparation  will  not  be  in  learning  rules  to  guide  us, 
but  in  attaining  such  an  understanding  of  the  principles 
and  realities  as  will  make  us  do  the  right  thing  naturally. 
For  above  all  a  leader  must  be  genuine, — his  own  true 
self,  not  an  imitation  of  some  other,  be  that  other  ever 
so  successful. 


CHAPTER  II 

THE   PRINCIPLES   OF   LEADERSHIP 

61.  Our  Object  in  this  chapter  is  to  get  at  the  prac- 
tical elements  of  leadership ;  Lo  find  out  what  leadership 
requires  in  one's  own  personal  qualities  and  in  dealing 
with  men.     In  doing  this  the  first  consideration  is  to 
understand  the  object  of  leadership.     To  get  a  clear 
conception  of  the  object  of  an  undertaking  should  al- 
ways be  the  first  step  in  its  execution,  for  men  work 
to  better  advantage  and  leaders  lead  to  better  advan- 
tage, when  the  object  of  their  efforts  is  clearly  defined 
in  their  minds.     One  would  think  that  the  Allies  had 
been  fighting  the  war  to  the  best  of  their  ability;  yet 
recall  the  tremendous  impetus  given  their  efforts,  when, 
in  answer  to  the  President's  question,  they  had  clearly 
defined  their  object  in  fighting. 

62.  The  Object  of  Leadership  then  is  so  to  handle 
one's  men  as  to  build  up  and  maintain  a  high  spirit  of 
discipline  and  morale,  of  individual  initiative,  of  loyalty 
and  of  teamwork;  and  so  to  direct  this  spirit  as  to  win 
the  highest  efficiency  and  ultimate  success  in  battle. 
In  short  its  object  is  to  develop  and  use  the  psychological 
elements  of  the  war  machine  and  thus  increase  its 
efficiency  by  doubling  its  manpower.    So  the  object  of 
every  step  in  this  discussion,  the  psychologic  object  of 

42 


THE  PRINCIPLES  OF  LEADERSHIP  43 

every  step  in  leadership,  is  to  secure  better  discipline' 
and  morale,  more  intelligent  initiative,  keener  loyalty 
and  better  teamwork.  The  student  must  keep  these 
objects  ever  in  mind  in  both  study  and  practice,  as 
furnishing  a  purpose  or  guide  in  all  that  is  said  or  done. 
The  accomplishment  of  these  objects  is  a  constant 
inspiration  to  a  good  officer;  by  his  comments  at  drill, 
by  his  criticisms  of  a  field  exercise,  by  his  every  act  in 
administration,  he  seeks  to  build  up  morale  and  ini- 
tiative and  all  these  essential  qualities  in  the  charac- 
ters of  his  men. 

63.  As  to  the  Personal  Qualities  required  in  the 
leader,  we  only  ask  that  each  man  use  intelligently 
the  ones  that  he  has.     It  is  not  intended  to  enumerate 
all  the  high  qualities  of  the  great  leaders  of  history, 
and  then  expect  the  student  to  adopt  them  as  his  own. 
None  of  us  begin  to  have  all  of  these  qualities,  or  any 
of  them  in  perfection.     But  all  of  us  do  have  some 
sense  of  justice  and  fairness,  are  possessed  of  a  degree 
of  courage  and  self  control,  and  can  use  our  judgment 
and  will  power.     The  point  is  to  learn  the  value  of  our' 
various  qualities,  and  to  cultivate  them  by  intelligent 
use.     We  are  all  human — let  us  admit  it  and  act  accord- 
ingly.    And  that  would  be  a  very  good  first  step  toward 
success  in  leadership,  for  there  is  no  other  one  thing  so 
often  heard  of  a  good  officer  from  the  sincere  lips  of  his 
admiring  men  as  that  "he  is  a  real  human  being."    An 
appreciation  of  the  meaning  of  that  fact  alone  would 
serve  as  an  inspiration  and  an  excellent  guide. 

64,  Many  men  of  but  mediocre  ability  have  success- 


44  MILITARY  MANPOWER 

fully  carried  through  one  big  job  after  another  simply 
because  they  had  the  faculty  for  inspiring  the  loyalty, 
initiative  and  best  endeavors  of  their  subordinates. 
Many  others  of  stronger  character  and  higher  mental 
attainments  have  failed  to  do  so  because  they  failed  to 
inspire,  and  even  antagonized,  their  subordinates. 
And  while  their  seeming  lack  of  tact  may  have  been 
due  to  natural  deficiency,  in  nine  cases  out  of  ten  it  was 
due  to  the  fact  that  they  had  accepted  as  their  guide 
some  old  time  rule  about  how  to  enforce  discipline,  or 
else  because  they  had  never  given  thought  to  the 
subject  of  handling  men  and  realized  its  importance. 
It  is  not  difficult  to  learn  how  to  avoid  their  mistakes 
and  to  acquire  the  art  of  those  who  know  how  to  inspirtf  ; 
the  enthusiastic  efforts  of  others. 

65.  It  is  understood  then  that  we  are  not  discussing 
the  high  qualities  of  the  superman,  nor  striving  to 
attain  to  the  leadership  of  a  Napoleon.  It  must  also 
be  understood  that  not  all  these  points  will  apply  to 
any  one  case  of  leadership,  in  which  many  of  them 
might  be  unreasonable.  But  all  are  based  on  the  same 
philosophy  of  human  control,  and  are  consistent  with 
the  modern  spirit  of  individualism  which  has  become  a 
prime  consideration  for  the  army.  So  as  you  read 
something  that  may  strike  you  as  unreasonable  in  the 
case  you  have  in  mind,  give  it  fair  consideration  as 
applicable  to  certain  cases,  and  weigh  it  as  a  means  of 
adding  to  your  comprehension  of  the  true  spirit  of 
leadership.  You  cannot  know  too  much  about  this  in 
the  general  case.  The  broader  your  knowledge  and  the 


THE  PRINCIPLES  OF  LEADERSHIP  45 

better  defined  your  individual  opinions,  the  better 
judgment  you  will  be  able  to  bring  to  your  particular 
problems.  You  are  the  big  factor.  In  the  end  it  is 
going  to  be  what  you  believe  and  think  and  feel  that  is 
going  to  make  you  successful  or  not.  You  will  never 
win  by  following  any  abstract  rules  you  do  not  yourself 
feel  and  live  by. 

66.  Qualifying  for  Leadership.     Any  man  of  na- 
tive character  may  fit  himself  to  lead  successfully. 
Hundreds  of  thousands  of  civilians  thus  fitted  them- 
selves in  the  late  war  to  lead  as  officers  and  non-com- 
missioned officers.     Many  had  had  no  experience  of 
command  to  guide,  them,  had  never  given  a  direction 
even  to  a  servant.     Yet  by  application  they  rapidly 
learned  how  to  handle  themselves  as  leaders  and  their 
men  as  loyal  followers,  and  carried  through  with  a 
success  that  varied  with  the  degree  of  proficiency  they 
attained  in  the  art.     No  one  expects  perfection.     It  is 
impracticable  to  follow  rules  or  to  assume  personal 
qualities  that  are  not  natural.     The  thing  to  do  is  to 
realize  that  leadership  may  be  developed,  to  absorb 
its  fundamentals  into  your  own  system,  and  to  study 
yourself  as  applying  them  to  the  problems  of  your 
profession. 

67.  Your  own  personality  is  the  one  instrument  you-^ 
have  got  to  work  with."!  Learn  to  appreciate  its  strong 
points  and  its  weak  onesTjits  possibilities  for  doing  the 
right  thing  and  the  wrong,  "and  particularly  to  appreciate 
how  it  affects  others.     Get  it  well  in  hand  through 
practicing  conscious   control,   and   make  it   work   in 


46  MILITARY  MANPOWER 

accordance  with  your  wishes.  You  will  make  mis- 
takes, the  best  of  us  do.  The  point  is  to  have  sense 
enough  to  recognize  the  mistake,  to  correct  it  and  try 
to  avoid  repeating  it.  Observe  the  conduct  of  others  as 
well  as  your  own,  and  ask  yourself  in  each  case  if  the 
best  thing  was  done  to  get  the  desired  result.  There  is 
generally  one  best  thing  to  say  or  do,  and  at  least  a 
dozen  wrong  ones.  The  chances  are  largely  in  favor 
of  using  the  wrong  one,  but  by  giving  it  thought  you 
learn  to  pick  the  right  until  in  time  it  becomes  quite 
instinctive  for  you  to  do  so.  We  can  sum  it  all  up  in 
just  about  this: — that  you  begin  to  think  seriously 
about  yourself  in  your  job,  and  determine  that  you  are 
going  to  be  natural,  genuine,  fair  and  self-controlled; 
that  you  realize  that  your  instruments  are  human  beings 
and  that  you  have  got  to  control  them  through  your 
own  personality;  and  that  therefore  you  determine  to 
study  your  personality  land  your  tools  so  you  may  use 
them  intelligently.  OBservation  and  personal  applica- 
tion of  its  results  are  the  great  things. 

68.  No  two  leaders  may  act  exactly  alike,  for  each 
must  use  his  own  personality.     One  may  be  naturally 
cold,  short  spoken  and  stern,  the  other  suave  and 
gentle;  yet  both  be  equally  good  leaders.    And  when 
you  analyze  their  treatment  of  their  men  you  will 
find  that  both  observe  the  same  fundamental  principles 
of   justice,   fairness  and  regard  for  their  individual 
development. 

69.  And  as  the  personalities  of  leaders  must  differ, 
so  even  more  will  those  of  the  men.    To  control  them 


THE  PRINCIPLES  ,OF  LEADERSHIP  47 

to  best  advantage  you  must  have  a  working  knowledge 
of  human  nature — for  while  all  mankind  responds  more 
or  less  alike  to  well-known  instincts  and  habits,  there  are 
times  when  you  have  to  consider  the  individual.  Here 
is  where  observation,  experience  and  thinking  about  it 
prepare  you  to  act  intelligently.  As  a  good  horseman 
soon  comes  to  handle  a  thoroughbred  or  a  cold  blood 
with  equal  assurance  and  success,  so  the  leader  of  men 
gets  to  know  instinctively  what  touch  to  give  the 
reins  or  spurs  in  order  to  get  the  result  he  wants. 
And  if  in  any  given  case  you  are  undecided  what  to  do, 
think  what  would  make  you  respond  cheerfully  if  you 
were  in  his  place,  and  what  would  make  you  "buck." 
In  this  way  you  may  be  sure  generally  to  pick  the  right 
thing,  for  at  bottom  we  are  all  more  or  less  alike. 
|  70.  Above  all  you  must  be  genuine.  Use  the  per- 
sonality God  gave  you, — only  use  it  naturally  and  with 
earnest  purpose  to  play  the  game  fairly.  _\ If  by  nature 
you  are  gentle  and  tactful,  be  thankful,  and  do  not  try 
to  be  a  bear,  because  you  have  admired  some  big  burly 
man  who  was  a  successful  leader.  \  The  genuineness 
and  earnestness  of  your  own  personal  efforts  to  play 
the  game  will  go  further  than  the  best  possible  imitation 
of  some  other,  be  he  ever  so  good. 

71.  Self-Control.  You  are  probably  shrinking  from 
this  task  of  taking  yourself  in  hand  in  preparation  for 
leadership.  But  it  is  quite  natural  that  you  should  thus 
train  yourselves,  for  self-control  js  the  one  first  step 
toward  ability  to  control  others.  And  you  will  the 
more  eagerly  accomplish  your  own  self-discipline,  as 


48  MILITARY  MANPOWER 

you  observe  human  nature  and  note  the  blessings  of 
the  man  who  is  self-disciplined  and  the  curse  both  to 
himself  and  his  fellows  of  the  man  who  is  not.  Those 
parents  who  allow  a  child  to  grow  to  manhood  undis- 
ciplined put  a  great  handicap  upon  him.  Selfish, 
petulant,  flaming  into  passion  at  any  opposition,  egoism 
coloring  everything  hi  life  for  him,  he  is  a  poor  member 
of  the  team  in  work  or  play,  and  is  more  often  tolerated 
by  his  fellows  than  heartily  welcomed.  He  has  many 
hard  lessons  to  learn  before  he  becomes  a  truly  worth 
while  member  of  society.  Far  from  being  fit  to  lead 
others,  he  is  generally  the  most  difficult  problem  for 
the  leader,  who  now  has  to  do  the  work  that  the  parents 
should  have  done  in  his  childhood. 

72.  You  have  the  requisite  native  character  for 
leadership,  or  you  would  not  be  here  in  position  to  use 
it.  It  remains  for  you  to  prove  its  worth  and  improve 
its  natural  qualities.  You  will  not  do  this  by  any 
grand  stand  plays,  or  even  by  prayer.  You  will  do  it 
by  continued  thoughtfulness  in  meeting  the  human 
problems  ot  your  profession,  and  by  a  discipline  of 
self  which  will  make  and  keep  you  fit  for  your  arduous 
duties.  Success  in  war  demands  that  men  and  par- 
ticularly leaders  be  highly  self -disciplined.  These 
bodies  of  yours  are  going  to  rebel  strenuously  when 
strain  and  hunger  bear  hard  in  campaign;  they  are 
going  to  demand  a  halt  for  rest  at  the  crucial  moment 
when  victory  lies  just  beyond  the  seeming  limit  of  your 
endurance.  Well  for  you  then  if  you  have  taught  the 
physical  man  that  he  must  obey  the  moral  no  matter 


THE   PRINCIPLES  OF  LEADERSHIP  49 

how  great  the  effort.  Millions  of  lives  have  been  lost 
in  war  because  the  winners  of  battle  did  not  have  the 
stamina  to  carry  the  victory  through  to  a  crushing 
defeat  that  would  have  closed  the  campaign.  The 
seeming  brutality  that  drives  exhausted  men  forward 
after  victory,  is  in  reality  most  merciful.  The  officer 
who  finds  himself  mentally  and  physically  ready  and 
fit  to  take  advantage  of  his  opportunities  in  war  has 
conserved  his  vitality  and  self-trained  his  mind  and 
body  in  peace.  Each  may  find  opportunities  enough 
for  this  self -training;  and  he  will  be  a  better  man,  and 
citizen,  and  soldier,  in  the  degree  in  which  he  uses  them. 
An  ambitious  officer  avoids  dissipation,  and  stores  up 
vitality  in  peace  that  he  may  draw  on  it  in  war,  nor  need 
then  to  rest  when  by  supreme  exertion  he  might  be 
adding  to  the  welfare  of  his  men  and  building  up  their 
morale  for  the  test  to  come. 

73.  The  Military  Character.  As  a  military  man 
you  should  have  a  clear  conception  of  the  type,  and  its 
requirements.  For  the  army  officer  is  as  distinct  in  his 
characteristics  and  has  as  much  pride  of  profession,  as 
the  priest  in  clerical  garb.  The  proudest  characteristic 
of  the  service  and  the  one  most  jealously  guarded,  is  the 
nicety  of  its  HONOR.  An  officer's  plain  statement  of 
fact  is  as  good  as  a  "certificate  on  honor."  Deceit, 
meanness,  underhanded  methods,  may  be  prevalent 
weaknesses  in  the  competitions  of  civil  lifejbut  they  are 
intolerable  in  this  knightly  brotherhood.  Truthfulness 
and  square  dealing  are  absolutely  necessary^  to  military 
procedure, — the  machine  cannot  function  without  them. 


50  MILITARY  MANPOWER 

An  officer  is  a  gentleman,  in  the  fine  old  meaning  of  the 
word,  and  if  he  fails  of  that  standard,  military  law 
knows  only  the  one  sentence — dismissal. 

We  proudly  trace  the  traditions  of  the  military 
profession  directly  back  to  the  Order  of  Knighthood. 
Originally  formed  by  a  few  lofty  minded  gentlemen 
for  the  purpose  of  succoring  the  weak  and  maintaining 
the  right  amidst  the  social  and  political  horrors  of  the 
Dark  Ages,  this  Order  overspread  Western  Europe, 
and  for  centuries  furnished  the  brain  and  sinew  of  the 
armies,  as  well  as  the  best  minds  in  Church  and  State. 
Its  governing  principles  were  abhorrence  of  cowardice 
and  deceit,  humbleness  in  victory,  stoicism  in  hardship, 
patience  in  defeat,  and  gentleness  in  the  exercise  of 
strength  and  authority.  The  gradual  establishment 
of  these  principles  in  those  barbarous  conditions  made 
civilization  again  possible;  and  their  long  continued 
practice  by  military  leaders  stamped  them  indelibly  as 
characteristics  of  our  profession.  "Might"  no  longer 
made  "right,"  and  "not  to  hit  a  man  that  is  down" 
became  an  accepted  rule  which  has  controlled  the  con- 
duct of  even  the  meanest  citizens  of  all  these  nations 
but  one.  It  is  therefore  in  the  pniclires  of  these 
knightly  military  gentlemen  that  we  find  the  source 
of  the  soldier's  sense  of  civic  duty  and  helpfulness  to 
the  community,  and  it  is  in  their  code  of  conduct  that 
we  find  our  ideal  of  manliness  to-day.  And  so  sincerely 
have  we  accepted  that  code  as  the  true  philosophy  of 
decent  living  that  thousands  of  thoughtful  citizens 
went  gladly  to  the  late  war  because  they  realized  that 


THE  PRINCIPLES  OF  LEADERSHIP  51 

the  further  life  of  that  code  was  threatened  by  a  people 
who  argued  that  might  did  make  right. 

74.  The  true   soldier  unconsciously  practices   that 
same  code  to-day — and  his  community  is  the  better  for 
his  living  in  it.     His  duty  does  not  cease  with  the  dis- 
missal of  the  company.     In  the  presence  of  crime 
against  the  commonwealth,  of  public  danger  or  disaster, 
in  any  crisis,  he  remembers  that  he  is  a  soldier  and  is 
the  first  to  jump  to  the  front.     Discipline  and  training 
have  made  him  a  natural  leader,  a  high  sense  of  civic 
duty  makes  him  a  worthy  one.     It  is  the  proud  record 
of  the  American  army  that  its  members  have  ever 
been  found  working  for  the  public  weal,   and  never 
against  it.     Not  only  when  ordered  but  often  volun- 
tarily,— in  the  opening  of  the  West  and  the  regulation 
of  distant  possessions,  in  the  San  Francisco  fire,  Miss- 
issippi floods,  tropical  epidemics,  the  soldier  has  borne 
the  brunt  of   regulation  and  control,   and  faithfully 
rendered  signal  service  for  the  greater  good  of  com- 
munity living. 

75.  These  traditions,  records  and  ideals  are  the  very 
stuff  of  which  the  military  character  is  made,  and  must 
lie  deep  and  clear  in  the  soul  of  the  officer,  whence  they 
furnish  the  inspiration  for  those  talks  to  his  men  by 
which  he  is  to  build  up  their  morale.     In  these  records 
and  ideals  we  find  the  psychologic  reason  for  the  military 
carriage.     Hence  we  insist  that  when  the  soldier  ad- 
dresses  an   officer  he   shall   stand   with   head   erect, 
shoulders  back  and  chest  raised,  stand  squarely  on 
both  feet,  in  no  sense  a  serf  but  rather  the  proud  figure 


52  MILITARY  MANPOWER 

of  a  man  looking  his  officer  squarely  L"  the  eye.  We 
want  him  to  feel  proud,  and  show  his  pride.  He  is  a 
fellow  member  in  the  honorable  profession  of  arms. 
By  his  enlistment  he  has  taken  a  position  before  his 
fellow  citizens  that  entitles  him  to  their  respect. 
He  has  in  effect  announced  that  he  is  man  enough  to 
meet  sacrifice  and  hardship  and  even  death;  yes,  to 
meet  a  thousand  deaths  on  the  battle  field  and  still 
go  on.  These  are  proud  words  for  any  man  to  feel, 
"I  am  a  soldier."  Get  this  spirit  into  you  and  get  it 
into  your  men.  You  will  then  be  military  from  inner 
promptings,  and  will  naturally  carry  yourselves  as 
becomes  men  who  stand  ready  to  make  the  supreme . 
sacrifice  for  their  fellows. 

76.  Personal  Appearance.  As  to  dignity.  We^ 
will  now  proceed  to  consider  some  of  the  practical  and 
more  important  details  which  concern  the  work  of  the 
leader.  First,  he  holds  his  position  on  the  assumption 
that  out  of  the  whole  group  he  is  the  best  all  around 
man  for  the  job.  His  appearance — how  he  carries 
himself  before  hislhen — must  maintain  this  reputation 
for  excellence. ^  The  nature  of  the  work  in  hand  and 
his  grade  of  office  will  influence  the  amount  of  dignity 
to  be  shown,  but  in  every  case  there  is  a  certain  dignity 
which  all  men  must  find  in  their  leaders  to  which  they 
may  instinctively  give  their  respect,  i This  is  just 
about  the  amount  of  dignity  that  conies  naturally  from 
earnestness  and  sincerity  of  purpose.  It  is  not  a  virtue 
to  be  assuined,  a  superficial  garment  to  be  put  on  for 
your  work.  It  has  nothing  to  do  with  haughtiness  or 


THE  PRINCIPLES  OF  LEADERSHIP  53 

stiffness — unless  it  be  an  assumed  dignity  which  is  often 
thus  manifested.  "It  comes  simply  from  seeing  things 
in  their  right  proportion — big  things  big,  small  things 
small,"  and  really  has  more  of  humility  than  of  pride. 
It  forbids  you  to  patronize  your  men,  to  appear  to 
condescend  to  them  in  your  dealings,  and  it  does  admit 
your  sharing  both  their  earnest  concerns  and  their  fun. 
Professor  Hocking  says  "To  make  a  quick  transition 
from  fun  to  business,  and  carry  your  men  with  you 
instantly,  is  the  test  of  real  dignity.  The  two  opposites 
of  dignity  are  permanent  solemnity  and  permanent 
triviality."  Both  have  a  bad  effect  on  humans. 

77.  As  to  Example.  Remember  also  in  the  matter 
of  appearance  that  you  are  an  example.  Imitation  is 
a  great  teacher — the  sole  teacher  of  our  infancy,  not 
to  be  despised  in  our  manhood.  Your  men  are  going 
to  be  very  much  as  you  are — if  you  are  really  their 
leader.  Your  example  of  cheerfulness,  promptness, 
loyalty  to  superiors,  smartness,  courtesy,  energy  and 
interest,  will  find  response  in  that  of  the  men.""  This  is 
carried  even  to  the  extent  of  copying  the  cut  of  the 
hair,  the  angle  of  the  hat,  and  other  personal  peculiar- 
ities. The  power  of  example  is  a  potent  force,  and  very 
useful  in  establishing  loyalty. 

A  very  important  example  for  you  to  give  is  one  of 
earnestness  of  purpose  and  interest  in  the  work.  The 
accomplishment  of  the  task  must  appear  to  be  a  vital 
matter  to  you.  Listlessness  and  indifference  on  your 
part  will  be  quickly  reflected  by  the  men,  while  they 
will  equally  respond  to  a  reasonable  amount  of  smart- 


54  MILITARY  MANPOWER 

ness  and  earnestness.  You  can  imagine  the  amount  of 
earnestness  we  used  to  put  into  our  English  lessons 
when  we  had  an  old  instructor  who  closed  his  eyes  and 
dozed  while  each  cadet  recited.  There  was  great 
keenness  to  get  into  his  sections,  but  it  stopped  there. 
You  should  appear  to  care  so  much  for  your  work 
that  you  are  indifferent  to  the  little  things  that  affect 
your  own  comfort.  If  the  men  see  you  taking  advan- 
tage of  your  position  to  enjoy  comforts  denied  to  them 
it  induces  a  state  of  mind  that  interferes  with  good 
work.  A  good  example  of  this  was  the  conduct  of  a 
captain  of  cavalry  in  the  Philippines  who,  being  required 
to  conduct  drill  during  the  heat  of  the  day,  took  up  his 
position  under  the  shade  of  a  solitary  tree  on  the  plain 
and  drilled  his  troop  in  a  circle  around  him.  That  drill 
did  not  add  much  to  the  excellence  of  the  troop  or  to 
their  loyalty  for  the  captain.  The  opposite  of  this 
picture  is  Alexander  in  the  desert  refusing  a  drink  of 
water  because  his  soldiers  could  have  none.  Which 
was  the  better  soldier? 

78.  Ability  to  Lead.  Again  you  want  to  impress 
the  men  as  being  one  who  knows  at  once  what  is  to  be 
done  in  each  case  that  arises,  who  makes  quick  deci- 
sions, and  who  carries  through  what  he  has  undertaken 
without  changing  his  mind.  We  will  discuss  this 
more  in  detail  later,  enough  here  to  say  that  by  figuring 
out  ahead  of  time  all  the  details  of  a  certain  undertaking 
and  carefully  planning  for  it,  you  can  carry  it  through 
with  an  apparent  readiness  of  decision  and  resource 


THE  PRINCIPLES  OF  LEADERSHIP  55 

that  will  be  surprising; — and  a  few  such  successes  will 
establish  your  reputation  as  an  able  leader. 

79.  Knowledge  of  Details.  Finally  your  position  pre- 
supposes that  you  know  the  work  better  than  does 
any  other  man  in  the  group.  Generally  speaking  you 
should  be  able  to  do  each  man's  part  at  least  as  well  as 
the  man,  able  to  know  when  he  is  working  to  best 
advantage,  able  to  recognize  particularly  good  perform- 
ance to  commend  it,  able  to  correct  improper  methods 
and  point  the  way  to  improvement.  This  superior 
knowledge  gives  you  the  self-confidence  to  appear  be- 
fore the  men  as  their  leader  and  to  give  them  instruc- 
tions and  orders  which  you  know  are  reasonable.  The 
men  instinctively  feel  and  recognize  this  superiority, 
and  naturally  give  it  respect  and  obedience. 

Of  course  no  one  man  may  reasonably  claim  to  know 
everything,  nor  to  be  more  skillful  in  every  detail  than 
certain  specialists.  This  fact  is  frankly  recognized  by 
all  the  group,  and  is  used  to  stir  the  pride  of  individuals 
in  their  particular  superior  performance,  and  also  as  a 
reason  for  expecting  them  to  make  suggestions  for  any 
improvements  they  may  have  thought  out. 
/  80.  Popularity.  Should  a  leader  strive  for  "popu-^ 
larity"  with  his  men?  By  all  means,  [if  he  is  man 
enough  to  win  it  on  his  merits,  for  it  is  a  large  element 
in  establishing  their  loyalty.  But  it  is  very  easy  for  the 
beginner  to  have  the  wrong  ideas  as  to  how  popularity  is 
won.  He  must  clearly  understand  that  it  is  not  gained 
through  easy  going  methods,  overlooking  faults  and 


56  MILITARY  MANPOWER 

neglects,  playing  favorites,  sympathy  with  growling 
and  kicking  about  the  way  things  have  to  be  done, 
or  in  any  of  those  things  which  go  to  undermine  dis- 
cipline and  morale.  Such  popularity  is  properly  called-^ 
cheap.  It  takes  no^manliness  to  get  it,  it  has  no  value 
once  you  have  it.  Such  leadership  is  worse  than  worth- 
less, it  does  actual  damage.  It  will  be  exposed  for  the 
sham  it  is  by  the  first  occasion  for  endurance,  by  the 
first  thing  that  comes  to  test  the  real  grit  and  ability 
of  the  group.  Then  one  of  two  things  must  happen: — 
failure,  or  some  better  man  will  jump  out  of  the  ranks, 
take  the  leadership  from  these  weak  hands,  and  lead 
the  men  through  the  emergency. 

This  is  illustrated  often  enough  in  the  service,  where 
authority  has  held  in  his  peace  time  position  some 
weakling  who  faded  into  the  ranks  when  the  actual 
test  came,  while  some  strong  quiet  character  stepped 
to  the  front  and  successfully  assumed  the  responsibility. 
It  is  the  duty  of  command  to  discover  and  remove  these 
weak  leaders.  It  is  equally  the  duty  of  every  leader 
to  study  himself  and  his  methods,  and  to  make  sure  that 
both  of  them  display  the  qualities  which  will  justify 
his  holding  the  leadership  and  will  give  it  such  character 
as  to  make  it  proof  against  any  emergency  demands. 

81.  The  popularity  that  counts,  that  makes  men  say 
they  would  follow  so-and-so  through  anything,  makes 
them  brag  about  their  chief  and  proud  to  serve  under 
him,  is  founded  on  admiration  for  his  real  ability,  con- 
fidence in  his  fairness  and  justice,  and  in  the  courage 
and  strength  of  his  character.  He  has  won  this  popu- 


THE  PRINCIPLES  OF  LEADERSHIP  57 

larity  by  being  absolutely  fair  and  square  to  all,  by 
seeing  that  both  privileges  and  extra  hardships  are 
equitably  divided  among  his  men,  by  holding  every  one 
to  a  strict  performance  of  duty,  by  reward  of  merit 
where  due  and  recognition  of  delinquency  where  it 
exists,  by  avoiding  anything  like  deceit  or  duplicity 
in  his  conduct  of  office,  by  never  appearing  to  ignore 
any  of  his  men  as  of  no  consequence  in  the  group,  by 
showing  a  sincere  personal  interest  in  the  welfare  of  his 
men  as  individuals  and  above  all  by  such  use  of  his  own 
head  in  planning  and  forethought  as  to  save  his  men 
unnecessary  work  or  trouble  and  yet  increase  their 
efficiency,  thus  making  them  realize  that  he  really  has 
the  abjUty  to  lead. 

82.'  Justice  and  Fairness  are  generally  considered 
the  first  essentials  for  handling  men  successfully]  and 
yet  how  often  we  see  leaders  who  give  them  no  con- 
sideration. Human  nature  demands  fair  play,  and 
gives  its  best  response  only  in  that  atmosphere^  No 
matter  what  our  religious  beliefs,  we  must  admit  that 
the  best  advances  in  civilization  have  resulted  from  the 
philosophy  of  life  taught  by  the  Son  of  the  carpenter  in 
Nazareth,  which  is  based  on  the  natural  impulses  of 
mankind  and  their  reactions  to  fair  dealing  and  decent 
treatment.  It  is  a  safe  proposition  that  ninety  per  cent 
of  mankind  are  good,  and  will  make  good  when  con- 
fidence is  shown  in  their  good  intentions.  Laws  and 
rules  are  made  to  fit  the  ten  per  cent  of  weaklings  who 
are  not  man  enough  to  play  fair  in  the  team.  The  big 
majority  have  to  be  cramped  in  their  freedom  because 


58  MILITARY  MANPOWER 

of  the  meanness  or  ignorance  of  these  few.  This  has  been 
a  common  fault  in  army  administration.  One  ignorant 
trooper  injures  a  horse  by  running  him  on  a  hard  road, 
and  an  indifferent  commander  at  once  forbids  all 
soldiers  ever  to  ride  at  a  gallop.  One  man  is  disorderly 
in  town,  and  all  men  are  forbidden  to  visit  the  town. 
This  may  be  an  easy  way  to  avoid  trouble,  but  it  is 
distinctly  arbitrary  and  unjust — and  indicative  of  un- 
fitness  for  command.  Better  results  may  be  obtained 
by  showing  confidence  in  good  intentions,  allowing 
more  freedom  of  action,  and  controlling  the  meaner 
ones  through  education,  elimination,  and  the  spirit 
and  example  of  their  comrades.  The  leader  should  ^ 
remember  that  fitness  for  command  is  proven  by  ability/ 
to  arouse  a  spirit  that  makes  the  men  want  to  give  one 
hundred  per  cent  service.  It  is  not  shown  by  control 
through  arbitrary  methods — any  one  can  make  rules 
which  practically  reduce  his  men  to  a  state  of 
serfdom. 

This  is  but  one  phase  of  showing  fairness.  The 
leader  will  have  all  kinds  of  situations  to  meet  in  which 
he  must  show  it.  It  is  impossible  to  anticipate  them 
with  rules,  but  you  may  meet  them  successfully  by  a 
continuing  determination  not  to  act  in  passion  or  im- 
patience; to  judge  each  case  fairly,  giving  full  weight  to 
the  Golden  Rule  about  "doing  unto  others;"  and  by 
remembering  that  your  final  decisions  must  have  for 
their  object  the  development  of  the  individual's 
character  and  the  group's  discipline. 

83.  Loyalty  and  Initiative.     We  have  seen  that 


Y- 


THE  PRINCIPLES  OF  LEADERSHIP  59 

modern  command  requires  the  development  of  loyalty 
and  intelligent  initiative  in  subordinates.  Initiative 
without  loyalty  would  be  dangerous,  but  from  the 
combination  comes  the  highest  efficiency^  The  leader 
wins  the  loyalty  of  his  men  by  gaining  their  admiration 
of  his  personal  qualities  and  by  stimulating  their  belief 
in  the  cause  which  both  are  serving.  He  develops 
their  intelligent  initiative  by  the  policy^ahd  methods  he 
employs  in  handling  them  in  their  work.^  He  constantly 
encourages  individual  effort,  taking  pains  to  commend 
every  display  of  unusual  interest,  skill  or  ingenuity. 
He  keeps  the  group  informed  of  what  it  is  trying  to 
do  as  a  whole,  so  each  may  understand  the  object  of  his 
particular  part  and  seek  opportunity  to  do  it  better. 
He  tells  the  man  what  to  do,  not  how  to  do  it,  and  praises 
whatever  shows  original  effort  and  decision.  By  con- 
structive criticism  and  explanation  of  any  performance 
of  duty  he  encourages  the  man  so  that  he  wants  to  do 
it  better  next  time.  In  short  he  encourages  his  men  to 
observe,  to  think,  to  decide,  and  to  act  on  their  own 
decisions.  So  long  as  their  spirit  is  loyal,  the  best 
results  come  from  such  service,  and  he  must  be  patient 
in  developing  these  faculties. 

84.  Development  of  Men's  Powers.  How  natural 
it  is  to  be  impatient  with  the  man  who  is  bungling  his 
early  efforts.  How  often  the  instructor  grabs  the 
thing  and  does  it  himself  rather  than  wait  for  in- 
experienced hands  to  find  the  way.  The  parent  says 
petulantly,  "I'd  rather  do  it  myself  than  see  John 
struggling  with  it."  The  sergeant  cares  more  to  have 


60  MILITARY  MANPOWER 

a  certain  thing  done  exactly  as  he  would  do  it  than  he 
does  for  all  the  good  that  might  come  from  the  developed 
skill  and  resourcefulness  of  his  men.  Of  course  these 
are  all  wrong.  Your  way  is  not  always  the  best  way. 
Oneway  is  often  as  good  as  another,  and  future  efficiency 

.  demands  the  development  of  your  men.  Except  in  the 
unusual  case,  this  ulterior  object  is  more  important 
than  present  perfection.  This  applies  particularly 
to  an  officer  who  fakes  a  maneuver,  drill  or  inspection 
for  the  sake  of  a  good  impression.  It  requires  patience 
thus  to  develop  the  powers  of  your  men,  for  they  cannot 
do  good  work  in  an  atmosphere  of  discouragement  and 
humiliation.  You  must  therefore  avoid  the  natural 

*.  display  of  temper  at  awkwardness  and  the  cutting 
remarks  which  indicate  that  you  think  the  man  a  hope- 
less idiot.  Try  it  yourself  left-handedly,  and  see  what 
untrained  muscles  can  do.  If  you  do  have  a  man  that 
is  hopelessly  bad,  you  have  a  different  problem  and 
should  avoid  wasting  your  time  and  that  of  the  others 
in  efforts  to  use  him.  You  are  developing  men  and 
their  powers.  The  constructive  and  inventive  instincts 
thrive  in  an  atmosphere  of  encouragement,  and  oppor- 
tunity to  employ  them  keeps  men  cheerfully  at  their 
tasks.  You  get  a  double  reward  from  this  system  of 
control, — the  satisfaction  of  seeing  your  subordinates 
grow  in  ability  under  your  hands,  and  the  satisfaction 
of  increasing  the  efficiency  of  your  command. 

86.  Self-Respect.  The  leader  has  to  guard  his  own 
self-respect  and  assure  that  of  his  menT]  Self-respect  is 
absolutely  essential  to  having  self-confidence,  and  with- 


THE  PRINCIPLES  OF  LEADERSHIP  61 

out  self-confidence  neither  leader  nor  man  can  begin  to 
play  his  part  in  war.  Each  will  be  called  upon  to  make 
quick  decisions  as  to  what  is  best  to  be  done,  and  to 
act  upon  them  definitely.  Each  must  have  enough 
self-confidence  to  do  this,  without  asking  some  one  what 
to  do,  in  an  effort  "to  pass  the  buck"  of  responsibility. 

86.  In  the  Leader.  First,  then,  the  leader  must 
maintain  his  own  respect, — in  his  daily  contact  with  life 
and  men,  and  in  the  conduct  of  his  office.  His  relations 
with  his  superiors  and  coordinate  leaders;  his  knowledge 
of  his  job;  his  self-control  of  temper,  frivolity,  pettiness, 
etc.;  his  methods  of  directing  work  and  handling  men; 
all  these  are  to  influence  and  to  evidence  his  self- 
respect,  and  are  thus  matters  for  his  consideration.^ 
He  must  realize  that  he  stands  before  his  men  as  a 
better  man  on  the  job  than  any  one  of  them, — and  in 
this  light  he  should  be  an  inspiration,  not  an  apology. 
It  need  not  lessen  his  self-respect  if  he  lack  either 
physical  stature  or  age  and  long  experience — though 
these  are  helpful.  Superior  knowledge  and  moral 
qualities  determine '  one's  fitness  for  leadership^  and 
enlist  the  men's  loyalty  and  obedience.  How  often 
in  the  war,  especially  in  the  French  army,  we  saw 
grizzled  old  fighters  loyally  following  youngsters  just 
out  of  the  training  schools  because  they  had  confidence 
in  the  knowledge  these  boys  had  gained.  In  our  draft 
army  training  it  was  not  uncommon  to  see  a  squad  of 
big  Northwestern  lumbermen  following  a  keen  eyed 
little  corporal  as  though  they  thought  him  a  second 
Napoleon.  It  is  not  the  size  or  age  of  the  body  but 


62  MILITARY  MANPOWER 

what  emanates  from  the  soul  within  it,  that  makes  the 
leader  of  men. 

87.  In  the  Men.     And  second,  the  leader  has  to 
cherish  the  self-respect  of  his  individual  subordinates, 
be  they  leaders  of  smaller  groups,  or  the  men  themselves. 
He  needs  their  intelligent  cooperation  and  must  often 
depend  on  their  individual  judgment  and  willingness 
to  carry  on  without  specific  instructions.     And  unless 
these   men   believe   in   themselves   and   feel   that    he 
believes  in  them  they  will  be  afraid  to  decide  what  to  do, 
and  afraid  to  do  it,  for  fear  of  failure  and  its  conse- 
quences.    So  by  showing  confidence  in  them,  by  never 
ignoring  them  as  individuals,  by  encouraging  and  com- 
mending good  as  well  as  correcting  error,  the  leader 
develops  the  self-respect  of  his  men  as  a  sure  basis  for 
the  self-confidence  and  strength  of  character  they  need 
in  order  to  meet  his  requirements. 

88.  Courage,  and  Force  of  Character.    Until  they 
have  met  the  supreme  test,  most  men  question  in  their 
souls   whether   or   not   they   have   got   the   requisite 
courage.     Some  are  so  curious  as  even  to  seek  eagerly 
for   the  opportunity  to  test  it.     The  vast  majority 
come  out  of  battle  with  the  proud  satisfaction  of  having 
risen  above  personal  fear  and  been  able  to  meet  danger 
without    flinching.     The    psychology    of    battle    and 
how  we  train  to  meet  its  requirements  are  subjects  for 
later  consideration.     Enough  here  to  accept  the  state- 
ment that  there  is  nothing  damning  in  the  fact  that  one 
feels  fear.     We  may  assume  that  every  one  feels  fear, 
for  the  self-protective  instincts  are  the  strongest  and 


THE  PRINCIPLES  OF  LEADERSHIP  63 

fear  is  nature's  instinctive  warning  of  the  imminence  of 
danger.  Its  purpose  is  to  make  us  take  steps  to  meet 
the  danger,  and  it  thus  leads  us  to  action.  Then  we 
forget  the  fear,  as  it  generally  disappears  when  we  have 
gotten  into  action.  A  developed  mind  and  character, 
bodily  health,  and  a  determined  purpose,  all  combine 
to  enable  one  to  avoid  showing  fear  or  letting  it  im- 
properly influence  his  actions.  No  one  would  willingly 
follow  a  leader  who  lacked  a  courageous  character, 
nor  could  a  leader  hope  to  carry  on  successfully  if  he  was 
self-conscious  of  his  own  moral  weakness.  Therefore 
the  leader  and  his  men  must  both  have  confidence  that 
the  leader  possesses  courage  and  force  of  character, 
so  he  may  be  self-controlled  and  capable  of  calm  reason- 
able judgment  in  a  crisis.  The  leader  establishes  this 
mutual  confidence  by  the  self-control  and  good  judg- 
ment with  which  he  meets  the  smaller  emergencies  of 
daily  administration.  If  he  becomes  excited  over  little 
things,  bellows  and  shouts  because  something  goes 
wrong,  he  is  not  only  failing  in  self-control  and  good 
judgment,  but  is  making  his  men  question  his  force  of 
character  and  his  ability  to  meet  a  real  situation.  A 
new  leader  should  therefore  make  a  point  of  training 
himself  in  self-control  under  trying  circumstances;  he 
should  even  seek  situations  which  try  his  nerve  and 
judgment,  rather  than  avoid  trouble  as  the  weak  man 
does  by  quietly  slipping  around  it. 

89.  Control  by  Power  of  Example.  It  is  the 
leader's  function  to  be  calm  in  emergency;  unruffled, 
even  sardonic  if  he  have  it  in  him,  in  the  face  of  hard- 


64         ,  MILITARY  MANPOWER 

ships;  unperturbed  and  even  casual  in  the  face  of 
danger.  The  psychological  power  of  mental  suggestion 
is  now  well  understood,  and  accepted  as  one  of  the  sure 
means  for  controlling  men.  If  you  are  a  real  leader 
your  men  will  take  their  mental  attitude  from  what 
yours  appears  to  be.  In  danger  they  will  watch  your 
movements,  even  facial  expression,  for  reassurance. 
It  is  then  that  you  drop  some  casual  remark,  "borrow 
the  makings"  and  roll  a  cigarette,  do  any  simple  thing 
naturally,  showing  that  you  are  at  ease  and  confident 
in  these  abnormal  circumstances; — and  your  men 
regain  their  wavering  confidence,  feeling  that  you  are 
not  afraid.  So,  in  time  of  unavoidable  hardship,  you 
must  avoid  showing  annoyance  or  impatience.  Your 
sardonic  acceptance  of  necessary  conditions  will  un- 
consciously lead  to  theirs,  and  save  the  nerve  strain  and 
damage  to  esprit  which  result  from  grumbling,  and 
bucking,  and  cursing  out  everything  in  general.  And 
in  emergency  you  must  show  great  self-control.  Re- 
member that  your  conduct  will  determine  that  of  your 
men.  If  you  are  excited,  they  will  be  more  so.  The 
emergency  will  call  for  perhaps  the  most  accurate, 
determined,  self-controlled  work,  and  if  your  heart  has 
jumped  into  your  throat  and  made  your  voice  quaver 
and  your  ideas  confused  (and  this  will  happen  to  the 
best  of  men),  nothing  but  disaster  can  result  if  you 
communicate  this  excitement  to  your  men.  You  will 
gain  time  and  success  in  the  end,  if  you  take  time  now 
to  swallow  your  heart,  and  regain  perfect  self-control, 
before  you  say  one  word  to  betray  your  perturbation. 


THE  PRINCIPLES  OF  LEADERSHIP  65 

Then  with  calm  self-assured  demeanor  give  your 
directions  as  becomes  a  real  leader.  Directions  so 
given  are  a  great  comfort  to  the  men,  and  assure  steady 
intelligent  execution.  To  begin  shouting  excited  ill 
advised  orders  in  an  emergency  is  one  of  the  most 
characteristic  failures  of  inexperienced  leadership. 
Try  to  train  yourself  so  that  you  will  be  one  of  the 
exceptions,  by  acquiring  the  habit  in  any  given  situa- 
tion, of  being  first  sure  of  yourself,  and  then  calmly 
giving  directions  to  your  men. 

You  have  opportunity  to  train  for  this  in  the  ordinary 
affairs  of  life,  and  may  thus  acquire  a  facility  for  know- 
ing what  to  do  in  an  emergency  and  doing  it  with  calm 
assurance.  In  any  public  accident  or  emergency  there 
is  generally  some  "admirable  bystander"  whose  mind 
has  acted  instantaneously,  who  has  jumped  in  and 
done  the  right  thing.  Question  your  mental  processes 
to  learn  why  you  were  not  the  man,  and  try  to  qualify 
next  time. 

90.  Personal  Pride.  Pride  is  another  quality  of 
human  nature  that  is  very  useful  to  the  leader  in  con- 
trolling his  men.  j  Just  as  he  guards  each  individual's 
self-respect  and  cherishes  it  as  the  necessary  basis  of 
that  manly  and  intelligent  response  he  expects  them 
to  give  to  the  demands  of  service,  so  he  builds  up  then" 
personal  pride — in  themselves,  in  what  they  are  doing, 
and  in  the  organization.  This  pride  is  easily  estab- 
lished by  seeking  out  cases  of  superior  accomplishment 
and  commending  them.  Once  fairly  developed  it  be- 
comes an  influence  to  which  the  leader  may  appeal 


66  MILITARY  MANPOWER 

successfully  for  loyalty,  better  individual  conduct, 
better  work  and  for  patient  endurance  of  hardship. 
He  will  not  get  it  in  a  day,  any  more  than  he  will  get  dis- 
cipline or  morale.  It  comes  from  the  performance  of 
good  work  that  has  been  recognized  as  such,  and  rests 
in  a  justified  feeling  of  ability  and  worth.  So  do  not 
expect  to  get  it  by  simply  announcing  to  your  men 
that  they  are  the  finest.  Bring  them  to  an  honest 
belief  in  their  worth  through  your  recognition  of  it  by 
praising  their  good  work,  and  by  making  suitable 
remarks  to  outsiders  which  some  of  them  may  overhear. 
Find  something  in  which  they  excel,  and  brag  about  it 
moderately.  If  possible  make  an  occasion  to  show 
their  ability  publicly.  If  your  outfit  can  once  get  a 
reputation  for  excellence,  it  matters  little  for  what,  it 
will  become  more  excellent, — good  men  will  seek  to  join 
it,  its  personnel  will  thus  improve,  and  it  will  continue 
to  grow  better. 

91.  Pride  in  Organization.  Pride  in  the  organiza- 
tion is  a  tremendous  influence  for  keeping  men  up  to  the 
mark.  It  makes  them  keep  each  other  up; — and  you 
begin  to  reap  the  rewards  for  having  established  it. 
You  see  them  developing  the  spirit  of  discipline  you 
have  hoped  for,  and  the  cooperation  in  that  teamwork 
which  means  so  much.  Every  leader  should  always 
strive  to  arouse  this  pride.  While  we  may  not  pre- 
scribe the  exact  steps  to  fit  the  various  conditions,  your 
ingenuity  will  suggest  the  ways  if  you  will  make  prac- 
tical use  of  your  knowledge  that  men  take  delight  in 
doing  things  well  and  in  having  their  excellence  recog- 


THE  PRINCIPLES  OF  LEADERSHIP  67 

nized;  that  the  excellence  of  the  individual  should  be 
reflected  in  the  reputation  of  the  team;  that  out  of  the 
bodily  and  mental  development  which  comes  from 
consciously  doing  things  well,  grow  self-respect,  laudable 
pride,  and  an  assurance  which  strengthens  the  individual 
character;  and  that  these  are  the  elements  of  organiza- 
tion spirit  which  you  should  seek  to  establish  in  your 
men. 

\  92.  Decision.  It  is  characteristic  of  a  successful 
leader  to  make  good  decisions  that  do  not  have  to  be 
changed  and  to  stick  to  them;  and  it  is  characteristic 
of  the  valor  of  ignorance  to  make  quick  ones  that  are 
generally  wrong.N7  Of  course  quick  decisions  are  pre- 
ferable if  they  aire  right,  and  army  leadership  often 
requires  that  they  be  both  quick  and  right.  In  civil 
life  the  leader  may  generally  take  time  to  weigh  his 
subject  before  deciding,  while  in  many  cases  it  is  best 
that  he  first  take  time  to  consult  his  subordinates. 
This  is  also  true  of  many  military  decisions,  but  in  the 
end  the  leader  must  in  all  cases  come  to  a  definite 
decision  as  to  his  course,  announce  it  clearly  as  his 
decision,  and  have  the  force  of  character  to  carry  it  out 
without  showing  hesitation  or  vacillation.  The  im- 
possible man  as  a  leader  is  one  who  cannot  make  up 
his  mind;  the  next  better  is  he  who  is  influenced  by  the 
last  man  who  talks  to  him;  and  still  too  poor  for  his 
job  is  he  who  having  come  to  a  decision  allows  himself 
to  waver  and  change  in  the  face  of  each  new  thought  or 
development  which  the  future  presents.  If  you  have 
any  of  those  tendencies,  eliminate  them  by  watching 


68  MILITARY  MANPOWER 

yourself  in  making  decisions.  By  practice  in  the  small 
affairs  of  your  daily  life  cultivate  your  power  to  grasp 
the  essential  facts  of  a  situation,  to  arrive  promptly 
at  a  decision,  and  to  stick  to  it  in  spite  of  unessentials 
which  may  come  along  to  make  a  change  seem  better. 

93.  Thinking.  The  more  you  think  about  the 
details  and  possibilities  of  your  work,  and  the  more 
you  keep  your  mind  on  it  during  its  execution,  the 
better  you  will  be  prepared  to  make  good  decisions 
quickly.  "Because  I  am  always  thinking  about  it" 
was  Napoleon's  answer  when  asked  how  he  was  able 
to  make  such  prompt  accurate  decisions  in  the  art  of 
war.  We  teach  the  advance  guard  commander  as  he 
marches  to  be  thinking  constantly  what  he  will  do 
if  the  enemy  appears  in  any  of  the  various  situations  he 
meets,  and  thus  to  keep  his  mind  prepared  to  make  his 
decision  quickly.  So  in  the  daily  affairs  of  adminis- 
tration and  training,  that  leader  will  do  best  who  is  a 
thinker,  who  thinks  of  the  business  in  hand  and  is 
mentally  prepared  to  meet  its  demands  for  direction. 
It  is  the  unexpected  thing  catching  a  man  off  his  guard 
which  causes  his  uncertainty  and  indecision.  It  is  the 
element  of  surprise  in  an  ambuscade  which  makes  it  so 
advantageous. 

A  leader  should  be  found  so  resourceful  and  sure  of  his 
judgment  that  he  can  successfully  meet  these  occasions 
for  quick  decision.  He  can  get  a  reputation  for  this 
ability  by  carefully  planning  ahead  of  time  for  certain 
tasks  and  thus  being  able  to  make  quick  decisions 
during  their  execution.  But  to  maintain  this  reputation 


THE  PRINCIPLES  OF  LEADERSHIP  69 

he  must  acquire  the  habit  of  giving  thought  to  his  work, 
not  only  in  anticipating  certain  tasks,  but  continually 
as  he  carries  on.  The  mind  which  does  not  have  to  be 
recalled  from  a  fishing  excursion  will  grasp  the  essential 
details  of  a  new  situation  more  quickly  and  accurately 
than  one  that  was  far  afield  when  the  unexpected 
happened. 

94.  A  Representative  of  Authority.  Organiza- 
tion and  subordination  make  the  immediate  leader 
of  a  group  the  direct  representative  to  his  men  of  the 
authority  which  controls  them  and  of  the  Government 
they  serve.  They  will  largely  get  their  impressions 
of  the  justice  of  this  authority  from  that  displayed  by 
the  leader,  and  judge  the  worthiness  of  government 
from  his  enthusiasm  and  loyalty.  The  more  ignorant 
the  man,  the  more  nearly  are  you  the  sole  representative 
of  these  elements.  He  may  be  a  recent  immigrant, 
barely  able  to  understand  our  language  and  quite 
dependent  on  you  for  his  conception  of  the  worth  of  our 
institutions.  It  is  for  you  to  make  him  a  good  citizen, 
not  drive  him  to  the  ranks  of  some  ism  by  making  him 
feel  that  our  authority  is  unjust  and  our  institutions 
unworthy.  It  must  give  pause  to  any  fair-minded 
man  to  realize  that  these  men  of  his  have  taken  a 
solemn  oath  of  obedience  to  his  orders,  and  are  required 
to  look  upon  him  as  the  representative  of  the  absolute 
authority  of  Government. 

I  95.  Symptoms  and  Results  of  Poor  Leadership. 
We  have  all  seen  men  who  are  awful  examples  of  what 
a  leader  ought  not  to  be.  A  little  authority  in  their 


70  MILITARY  MANPOWER 

hands  seems  to  upset  the  balance  in  their  heads. 
They  lose  all  sense  of  how  to  deal  with  men,  become 
ridiculously  arbitrary  and  loud  mouthed  and  blustering// 
They  try  to  rule  by  "putting  the  fear  of  God  into 
them."  "What  they  say  goes,"  simply  because  they 
have  been  named  the  boss,  and  "they  will  show  them." 
Their  first  step  when  they  see  anything  going  wrong  is 

to  bellow  "what  the  h are  you  doing?"  in  a  tone 

that  implies  that  the  man  is  not  only  a  fool  but  probably 
a  criminal.  They  outrage  his  manliness  and  every 
sensibility,  assume  his  motives  are  those  of  a  thief  and 
a  liar— and  then  expect  him  to  respond  with  efficiency 
and  loyalty.  Of  course  this  is  ridiculous.  Such 
methods  of  control  bring  only  sullen  obedience,  and 
even  invite  open  rebellion.  Swagger  and  bluster  are 
but  a  thin  camouflage  for  incompetence,  and  it  would 
be  a  wholesome  thing  for  these  leaders  to  be  able  to 
realize  the  scorn  and  disgust  they  are  implanting  in  the 
hearts  of  their  men.  Some  do  not  know  any  better, 
and  may  be  made  good  by  training;  others  lack  native 
character  and  are  hopeless.  Neither  should  be  left 
in  authority  as  they  are. 

96.  Where  you  find  recurring  cases  of  indifference 
and  insubordination  you  will  generally  find  that  the 
cause  for  it  lies  in  the  presence  of  a  leader  who  is  not 
good  enough  for  his  job.  It  is  true  that  men  generally 
start  with  the  intention  to  make  good,  and  if  many  go 
wrong  in  an  outfit,  the  answer  is  pretty  sure  to  be  that 
there  is  something  wrong  with  its  leader.  Likewise 
where  a  leader  finds  himself  unable  to  maintain  dis- 


THE  PRINCIPLES  OF  LEADERSHIP  71 

cipline,  he  may  well  seek  for  the  cause  within  himself. 
We  often  hear  the  statement  "I've  got  the  worst  bunch 
of  anarchists  on  earth.  No  one  could  do  anything  with 
them."  This  is  an  admission  of  the  leader's  own  un- 
fitness.  Men  run  about  the  same,  are  subject  to  about 
the  same  instincts  and  controlled  by  the  same  general 
principles.  I  have  seen  the  same  company  that  was 
all  but  mutinous  under  a  hard  headed  narrow-minded 
captain  become  one  of  the  best  disciplined  of  the 
whole  command  in  a  few  weeks  under  a  different 
officer  whose  leadership  embodied  principles  of  fairness 
and  decency  in  handling  men.  The  lesson  is  plain, 
both  to  the  man  who  wants  to  be  a  good  leader,  and 
to  the  commander  who  wants  his  subordinates  to  be 
highly  efficient.  ^ 

97.  Prestige  and  Suggestions.  The  leader  loses 
done  of  his  prestige  in  hearing  and  considering  the 
thoughts  of  his  subordinates.  '  In  the  end  the  decision 
is  his  and  on  that  they  all  have  to  act.  And  it  does  not 
hurt  his  leadership  to  have  to.  say  frankly  "I  don't 
know.  I'll  have  to  look  into  that."  If  he  finds  that 
he  has  taken  a  wrong  course,  it  does  not  hurt  even  to 
admit  frankly  that  he  was  mistaken,  especially  if  this 
action  has  happened  to  do  an  injustice  to  one  of  his 
men.  Mistakes  are  readily  forgiven,  but  not  meanness 
or  injustice.  Remember  always  that  the  men  admire 
manliness  in  their  leader  and  demand  justice  from  him. 
These  qualities  are  better  than  infallibility,  for  after 
all  they  like  to  feel  that  you  are  human.  And  above 
all  they  will  not  respect  a  bluffer.  It  is  hopeless  to  try 


72  MILITARY  MANPOWER 

to  bluff  when  you  do  not  know.  Some  one  will  know 
and  expose  you,  and  away  goes  the  respect  of  your  men. 

Suggestions  are  rather  to  be  encouraged,  and  given 
fair  consideration  when  made.  If  accepted,  credit 
should  be  given  the  man;  if  rejected,  tell  him  why. 
"Nobody  can  tell  me  how  to  .run  this  job"  is  a  narrow 
policy,  destroying  individual  initiative, — and  it  is  not 
true  anyway.  The  very  statement  shows  that  the 
leader  does  not  fully  know  his  job,  for  every  one  is  capa- 
ble of  improvement,  and  any  job  is  better  done  for  the 
combined  interest  and  resourcefulness  of  every  one 
connected  with  it.  The  suggestions  we  want  spring 
naturally  from  the  interest  and  partnership  you  make 
the  men  feel  in  the  organization.  The  only  encourage- 
ment they  need  is  first,  this  atmosphere  of  partnership, 
and  second,  a  chief  who  has  sense  enough  to  give  the 
suggestions  fair  consideration  and  to  put  them  into 
practice  if  good. 

98.  Asking  Men's  Opinions.  I  have  known  suc- 
cessful officers  to  make  it  a  rule  to  ask,  whenever  one 
of  their  men  came  to  them  with  some  question  or 
trouble,  "What  do  you  think  about  it?  What  would 
you  advise  doing?"  The  man  has  generally  been 
thinking  about  thisTor  some  time  before  he  presented  it, 
and  probably  has  in  mind  some  solution  which  he 
takes  this  way  of  presenting  for  your  consideration. 
By  thus  asking  his  opinion  you  encourage  his  personal 
interest  in  the  general  success,  enlist  his  cooperation, 
give  opportunity  for  that  self-expression  which  means 
so  much  to  every  self-respecting  man,  and  not  least  of 


THE  PRINCIPLES  OF  LEADERSHIP  73 

all  you  gain  time  for  consideration  of  your  own  answer 
while  he  is  presenting  his.  This  is  often  a  particularly 
good  way  to  handle  the  case  of  a  man  brought  before 
you  for  some  dereliction  of  duty.  Ask  him  what  he 
would  do,  if  he  were  boss,  with  a  man  who  had  com- 
mitted the  same  offense.  It  is  astonishing  how  this 
makes  him  realize  the  whole  situation,  which  he 
probably  had  not  thought  of  before;  and  nine  times 
out  of  ten  he  will  suggest  a  more  severe  punishment 
than  you  would  give,  and  come  out  of  the  experience  a 
much  more  responsive  member  of  the  group  than  he 
was  before. 

99.  The  Head  of  the  Family.  A  good  leader  is 
always  a  jealous  guardian  of  the  personal  rights  of  his 
men.  It  is  only  over  his  dead  body  that  an  injustice  is 
done  to  any  of  them  or  to  his  group  as  a  whole.  He  is 
their  champion  in  every  contact  with  the  larger  organi- 
zation, and  they  come  to  love  him  for  it.  He  may  row 
at  them  himself  (in  a  fatherly  way),  but  he  allows  no 
one  else  to  do  so.  He  sees  that  they  get  what  is  coming 
to  them.  If  hardship  has  to  be  borne,  he  sees  that  it  is 
borne  justly,  and  shares  it  with  them.  If  food  is  short 
and  shelter  poor,  he  does  not  rest  until  he  has  exhausted 
every  effort  to  improve  matters,  and  is  very  careful  to 
show  himself  no  favor  in  sharing  them.  He  fights  for 
their  fair  name,  and  for  full  recognition  of  their  merit. 
If  one  of  his  men  has  a  trouble,  it  becomes  his  trouble 
until  it  is  adjusted.  He  thus  establishes  the  feeling 
that  it  is  a  family  matter,  and  that  he  is  the  head 
of  the  family.  (Incidentally  he  is  sure  to  be  rewarded, 


74  MILITARY  MANPOWER 

for  the  men  will  soon  be  taking  a  keen  interest  in  the 
welfare  of  the  head  of  their  family.)  And  in  the  end 
the  men  come  to  speak  of  it  as  "our"  company, — not 
Smith's  or  Brown's  but  "ours,"  for  each  realizes  that  his 
interests  are  equal  in  it  with  any  other's.  And  until  his 
men  do  thus  speak  of  the  outfit  as  ours  rather  than  his, 
the  leader  may  know  that  he  has  not  yet  got  the  spirit 
which  he  should  have. 

100.  The  Group  Spirit.  Any  group  of  individuals 
working  together  for  a  common  purpose  is  going  to 
establish  unconsciously  a  group  spirit  of  some  kind. 
This  has  got  to  happen.  The  leader  knows  that 
success  largely  depends  on  what  this  spirit  shall  be, 
and  takes  pains  to  make  it  a  helpful  one.  By  getting 
to  know  the  men  and  "how  they  feel  about  it,"  he  keeps 
in  close  touch  with  the  spirit  that  runs  through  them 
all,  and  by  suggestions  here  and  there  he  does  much  to 
build  it  up  in  the  way  it  should  go  and  make  the  men 
feel  a  membership  in  his  team.  When  he  has  come 
to  know  this  spirit  well,  he  can  count  on  his  men  to 
respond  in  a  certain  way  to  certain  appeals  or  impulses, 
and  he  thus  makes  this  spirit  a  tool  in  his  hand  for  get- 
ting results.  In  time  of  hardship  or  strain  he  plays  on 
this  spirit  to  arouse  new  energy  or  endurance,  and 
jaded  muscles  spring  anew  to  life,  just  as  martial  music 
will  put  renewed  life  and  spring  into  the  lagging  steps 
of  tired  soldiers.  Thus  always  spirit  may  make  men 
endure  and  dare  and  carry  through  far  beyond  the 
normal  accomplishment.  Thus  the  thoroughbred  will 
run  unfalteringly  till  his  mighty  heart  breaks  with  the 


THE  PRINCIPLES  OF  LEADERSHIP  75 

strain,  while  there  need  be  no  fear  of  killing  the  am- 
bitionless  cold  bred,  who  slows  down  and  quits  at  the 
early  warnings  of  fatigue. 

So  the  good  leader  is  constantly  on  the  lookout  for 
means  to  build  up  this  splendid  spirit  in  his  group. 
By  word  and  deed,  and  particularly  by  thoughtful 
conduct  of  the  work  in  hand,  he  fosters  the  spirit  of 
putting  things  across  and  never  being  balked,  which  is 
going  to  carry  them  through  to  success  when  called 
upon.  His  men  come  to  realize  that  what  he  requires 
of  them  is  always  reasonable  and  that  it  makes  for 
efficiency;  they  find  that  he  is  always  considering  their 
welfare  before  his  own  and  taking  the  greater  pride 
in  their  success  for  the  team;  and  they  come  to  realize 
that  while  he  so  directs  their  work  as  to  make  it  as 
interesting  for  them  as  he  can,  he  will  never  accept 
failure  for  them  or  himself,  but  insist  on  carrying 
through  to  success.  It  is  possible  thus  to  establish 
so  strong  a  group  spirit  for  doing  good  work  and 
generally  winning  out  that  the  men  themselves  will  get 
after  the  laggards  and  expose  the  worthless  for  elimina- 
tion as  unfit  for  membership  in  the  team. 

101.  This  Spirit  Requires  Efficiency.  Such  results 
are  possible  to  the  leader  in  direct  proportion  to  his 
knowledge  of  his  job  and  his  ability  to  conduct  the 
work  with  efficiency  and  without  wasted  time  or 
energy.  Men  naturally  hate  inefficiency.  They  be- 
come critical,  caustic  in  their  remarks,  and  finally  dis- 
gusted under  a  leader  who  wastes  their  time  and  efforts, 
who  hesitates  over  decisions  and  wonders  whether  to  do 


76  MILITARY  MANPOWER 

this  or  that  and  how  to  do  either,  who  hasn't  the  tools 
and  material  right  at  hand,  who  is  always  picking  the 
wrong  man  for  a  piece  of  work,  and  who  holds  up  the 
work  of  all  while  he  fusses  with  the  clumsy  efforts  of 
some  "dub."  Such  a  leader  will  never  build  up  any 
good  spirit.  That  comes  only  from  the  reverse  of  this 
picture  of  incompetence. 

But  not  all  leaders  may  be  omniscient,  always  right 
and  sure  in  their  management  of  affairs.  True,  but 
by  looking  ahead,  by  planning  and  preparing  for  each 
new  task,  by  headwork  and  overtime  work,  they  can 
so  fit  themselves  for  each  task  that  they  can  carry 
their  men  through  it  with  such  efficient  direction  that 
they  will  seem  to  their  men  to  be  almost  godlike.  Of 
course  this  means  work  for. the  leader.  But  the  notion 
is  foolish  that  work  grows  less  as  one  ascends  the  ladder 
of  promotion.  Ambition  for  accomplishment,  pride 
in  command,  joy  of  meeting  manly  responsibility,  and 
not  that  enjoyment  of  an  easy  berth  which  some 
assume  it  to  be,  are  the  motives  which  inspire  the  leader 
to  greater  achievement. 

102.  Where  Leadership  Really  Shows.  As  we  watch 
a  skilful  leader  directing  his  men  through  some  task, 
tools  and  material  all  at  hand,  every  man  moving 
efficiently,  all  the  parts  working  smoothly  toward  the 
result,  it  is  natural  to  exclaim,  "what  teamwork  "  and 
"what  a  leader!"  But  out  of  years  of  experience  I 
tell  you  that  this  leader  seems  so  good,  not  because  God 
especially  endowed  him  with  skill,  but  because  he  pre- 
viously sat  down  and  planned  out  how  he  was  going  to 


THE  PRINCIPLES  OF  LEADERSHIP  77 

handle  this  especial  job,  and  because  he  took  pains  to 
see  to  it  ahead  of  time  that  everything  was  prepared 
for  the  work.  His  superior  leadership  shows  not  in  the 
work  he  is  here  doing,  but  in  the  work  he  did  before- 
hand in  building  up  the  discipline  and  teamwork  of  his 
men,  and  in  making  preparation  for  handling  this 
especial  job  efficiently.  That  is  why  he  may  now 
appear  so  quietly  sure  of  himself  and  his  men,  and 
that  is  the  real  task  for  leadership, — fitting  self,  men, 
and  team  ahead  of  time,  so  they  may  work  smoothly 
to  best  advantage  without  waste  or  friction. 

103.  Assuring  Confidence  and  Justice.  It  is  a 
common  fault  to  take  too  much  for  granted.  A  man 
cannot  do  good  work  if  his  mind  is  filled  with  troubles, 
or  even  questionings  as  to  his  duties  and  rights.  The 
wise  leader  keeps  his  men  reassured  in  peace  time  as 
well  as  in  campaign.  He  takes  pains  to  see  that  his 
men,  particularly  the  new  men,  understand  clearly 
their  rights,  duties,  and  mutual  relations,  and  especially 
the  method  by  which  each  may  secure  justice  from 
higher  authority  in  case  of  real  or  fancied  wrong. 

The  possession  of  authority  makes  a  wise  man  con- 
sider the  rights  of  others,  lest  he  do  some  injustice. 
It  is  likely  to  have  a  far  different  effect  on  a  man  of 
narrow  soul  and  intellect.  He  often  becomes  selfish, 
mean  and  arrogant,  indifferent  to  the  feelings  and 
rights  of  others,  and  partial  to  favorites  whom  he 
fchooses  for  selfish  reasons.  By  deceit  and  duplicity 
he  may  long  conceal  these  shortcomings  from  higher 
authority.  Therefore,  when  troubles  show  in  any 


78  MILITARY  MANPOWER 

group,  a  good  commander  first  seeks  the  source  in  the 
defective  qualities  of  its  leader;  regularly  finds  some 
means  of  checking  up  the  conduct  of  his  subordinates 
as  regards  then*  leadership;  and  has  it  clearly  understood 
by  all  that  every  man  has  ready  access  to  Kirn  for  the 
presentation  of  any  personal  trouble. 

104.  Creating  and  Maintaining  Discipline.  The 
inexperienced  man  is  likely  to  have  more  apprehension 
about  his  ability  to  maintain  discipline  than  about 
anything  else  in  connection  with  taking  charge  of  a 
group  of  men.  He  wonders  if  they  will  obey  him  and 
is  not  sure  of  himself  as  a  disciplinarian.  It  will  help 
him  if  he  gets  a  fair  idea  of  how  discipline  is  maintained 
practically.  It  is  often  said  that  discipline  is  the 
result  of  the  leader's  administration  of  rewards  and 
punishments.  This  is  too  narrow  a  view.  In  reality 
the  spirit  we  call  discipline  is  the  result  of  the  leader's 
whole  conduct  of  himself  and  his  job,  of  his  personality 
and  methods,  of  everything  he  does  for  his  men,  to  his 
men  and  with  them.  Among  all  these,  rewards  and 
punishments  play  an  important  part.  But  rewards 
have  a  great  deal  more  to  do  with  building  up  discipline 
than  have  punishments,  and  are  given  much  more 
easily  and  pleasantly.  In  fact  if  the  leader  has  es- 
tablished at  all  the  spirit  of  leadership  herein  pictured, 
he  will  have  but  rare  occasions  to  use  any  punishments. 
This  has  been  proven  over  and  over  again,  and  with  all 
kinds  of  men.  Fair  treatment  and  the  encouragement 
that  comes  from  judicious  appreciation  of  good  inten- 
tions and  from  praise  of  good  work  soon  establish  a 


THE  PRINCIPLES  OF  LEADERSHIP  79 

spirit  which  makes  punishment  quite  out  of  place  and 
unnecessary. 

105.  Discipline  from  Rewards.  In  giving  rewards, 
probably  the  most  effective  one  is  the  slight  word 
of  recognition  of  individual  effort  or  excellence,  some- 
times even  a  nod  and  smile  are  enough.  The  main 
thing  is  to  show  this  man  and  the  others  that  you  see 
and  appreciate  what  he  is  doing.  So  as  you  supervise 
the  work  of  your  men  be  on  the  lookout  for  chances  to 
commend  individuals.  Do  not  overdo  it;  fulsome  or 
unmerited  praise  does  more  harm  than  good.  Keep  it 
what  nature  intended  it  to  be,  a  reward  for  excellence 
which  every  man  likes  to  receive,  and  for  which  he 
naturally  strives  so  long  as  he  feels  sure  that  he  will 
get  it  when  merited. 

One  commander  looks  only  for  faults  and  speaks  only 
to  criticize  something  as  wrong;  while  another  seeks 
good  points  to  commend,  and  corrects  mistakes  only 
in  a  spirit  of  showing  how  to  do  better.  The  first  may 
by  tremendous  effort  hold  his  men  to  a  certain  level  of 
efficiency,  the  second  will  soon  have  them  all  going  in  a 
spirit  of  emulation.  Smith  does  not  see  why  he 
cannot  do  as  well  as  Jones,  whom  he  heard  the  captain 
compliment.  Appreciation  of  a  man's  excellence  ap- 
peals directly  to  one  of  his  strong  instincts,  and  never 
fails  to  inspire  continued  effort  to  win  further  praise. 

106.  Influence  of  Good  and  Poor  Men.  There  are 
always  to  be  found  in  every  group  certain  men  of 
stronger  more  cheerful  characters  than  the  average, 
men  who  make  the  best  of  things,  who  jolly  the  rest 


80  MILITARY  MANPOWER 

along  through  the  hard  tasks,  and  whose  influence  is 
thus  a  great  asset.  The  leader  notes  these  men, 
and  does  what  he  can  to  increase  their  influence  with 
the  others.  If  he  has  to  show  favor  to  some  individual, 
he  picks  one  of  these  men  to  receive  it,  thus  letting 
every  one  see  his  appreciation  of  their  cheerful  willing 
spirit. 

On  the  other  hand  there  are  often  in  the  outfit  certain 
men  of  the  meaner  sort.  They  do  the  growling  and 
grumbling  for  all,  and  their  influence  is  in  the  direction 
of  lowering  the  morale  of  the  group.  The  leader  must 
know  these  individuals  also,  and  do  what  he  can  to 
convert  them  to  cheerfulness  and  a  will  to  win.  Where 
a  man's  influence  is  bad,  nothing  should  be  done  that 
might  strengthen  his  standing  with  his  fellows.  If 
some  one  must  draw  a  disagreeable  task,  it  is  often  well 
to  let  such  a  man  have  it  as  a  reward  for  being  a 
"kicker."  A  leader  who  did  not  think  of  this  and 
made  the  mistake  of  handing  a  reward  to  such  a  one 
would  hurt  the  morale  of  the  whole  by  making  the  men 
feel  that  virtue  was  not  recognized,  and  that  their 
leader  lacked  good  judgment. 

You  must  therefore  know  your  men  and  watch  their 
work  and  their  spirit,  so  you  may  reward  the  deserving, 
and  never  appear  to  support  the  undeserving.  In  time 
of  hardship  or  strain,  when  the  morale  of  your  outfit  is 
being  tested,  it  may  win  through  or  break  down,  depend- 
ing on  which  type  of  men  have  the  stronger  influence. 
It  will  be  well  for  you  then  if  you  have  strengthened 
the  hands  of  the  strong  cheerful  ones  and  made  them 


THE  PRINCIPLES  OF  LEADERSHIP  81 

subordinate  leaders  of  sentiment  and  opinion  in  your 
group. 

107.  Leader  a  Maker  of  Men.  The  finest  thing 
about  being  a  leader  is  the  chance  it  gives  to  build  up 
the  characters  of  the  men,  to  take  hold  of  the  personal 
equation  of  a  weaker  brother,  discover  his  difficulties 
and  weaknesses  and  also  his  strong  points  and  possi- 
bilities, and  so  handle  him  as  to  make  a  man  of  him. 
This  not  only  brings  you  great  satisfaction  and  the 
personal  reward  of  feeling  that  you  are  making  the 
world  some  better  by  living  in  it,  but  it  brings  actual 
material  gain  to  you  and  to  the  community,  in  that 
you  have  made  this  man  a  better  citizen  as  well  as 
soldier.  Many  an  army  officer  finds  his  one  relief 
from  the  tedium  of  peace  time  duties  in  thus  taking  a 
keen  interest  in  the  personalities  of  his  men,  and  in 
making  it  his  business  to  build  up  a  reasonably  strong 
useful  character  out  of  what  may  appear  an  almost 
hopeless  wreck  of  humanity. 

Every  leader  is  constantly  affecting  the  future  of 
his  men,  consciously  or  unconsciously.  His  power  to 
reward  and  punish  makes  this  necessarily  true.  His 
decisions  and  acts  of  authority  each  tend  to  build  up 
or  to  discourage  the  character  of  the  man  affected. 
This  is  what  makes  us  shudder  to  see  this  power  of 
leadership  in  the  hands  of  ignorant,  unscrupulous, 
brutal  or  even  thoughtless  men.  The  good  leader 
realizes  how  by  strict  fairness,  encouragement  and 
guidance  he  may  develop  the  powers  of  his  men;  and 
how  by  continued  injustice  he  may  break  a  man's 


82  MILITARY  MANPOWER 

spirit,  destroy  his  manliness,  and  return  him  a  worse 
member  of  the  community  then  he  found  him.  He 
accepts  this  responsibility,  and  takes  pleasure  in  trying 
to  use  his  power  for  the  greater  good  of  the  men,  the 
community,  and  his  profession.  He  is  in  some  measure 
a  "maker  of  men,"  and  with  that  thought  in  the  back 
of  his  mind  he  studies  his  problem  in  a  desire  to  act  to 
the  best  advantage. 

108.  Discipline    by    Punishment.    Perhaps    the 
most  difficult  matter  for  the  conscientious  beginner  is 
the  necessity  for  his  inflicting  punishments,  and  all 
leaders  should  give  this  matter  their  best  attention. 
Punishment   is   always   given   only   as   a   corrective. 
It  is  administered  for  the  sole  good  of  the  man  and  of 
the  group,  and  never  in  a  spirit  of  vindictiveness  or 
revenge.    By  punishment  we  mean  all  the  corrective 
measures  commonly  used  as  means  for  disciplining  men. 
The  severity  of  any  one  of  them  is  largely  a  matter  of 
the  spirit  in  which  it  is  given  and  the  infrequency  of 
its  occurrence.     It  is  in  every  case  a  matter  for  serious 
consideration  by  the  leader,  until  long  experience  has 
made  him  quite  infallible  in  his  judgment. 

109.  It  is  possible  to  fix  a  set  standard  of  punish- 
ments, such  a  punishment  to  follow  such  an  offense; 
it  may  act  as  a  guide,  but  it  must  never  be  followed 
arbitrarily.    That  would  ignore  the  big  human  factor, 
and  all  manner  of  extenuating  circumstances.     Every 
case  of  offense  must  in  fairness  be  judged  on  its  own 
merits.    The  leader  must  judge  the  peculiar  circum- 
stances attending  it,  consider  the  personality  of  the 


THE  PRINCIPLES  OF  LEADERSHIP  83 

offender,  and  above  all  discover  the  underlying  motive. 
It  is  unquestionably  true  that  most  men  naturally 
prefer  to  do  right,  and  go  wrong  only  for  some  reason. 
Very  often  some  sense  of  offended  justice  is  behind  it. 
In  any  case  the  punishment  cannot  be  reasonable  unless 
founded  on  a  true  understanding  of  the  facts.  And  it 
must  be  both  reasonable  and  just,  for  its  one  big  object 
is  the  effect  it  is  going  to  have  on  the  man's  character 
and  on  the  discipline  of  the  whole  group,  and  nothing 
could  do  these  more  damage  than  an  unjust  punishment. 
This  effect  is  the  determining  factor, — and  it  is  better  to 
ere"  on  the  safe  side.  It  is  also  important  that  both 
leader  and  men  shall  always  realize  that  whatever 
punishment  is  given,  it  is  done  for  the  good  of  all  as  well 
as  for  that  of  the  man  concerned. 

110.  Investigation  of  Offense.  To  be  able  to  get 
at  the  actual  truth  of  the  matter  takes  tact  and  knowl- 
edge of  human  nature.  You  will  be  interested  in 
developing  this  ability  in  yourself.  It  will  often  be 
difficult  to  get  the  man  to  be  frank,  he  cannot  quite 
believe  in  your  desire  to  be  fair,  and  his  instincts  of 
secretiveness,  pugnacity,  being  a  good  sport,  etc.,  all 
stand  in  your  way.  Put  yourself  in  his  place  is  a  good 
rule  during  the  investigation.  It  is  going  to  take  time 
and  patience  and  skill  until  you  have  established  the 
tradition  of  cards  on  the  table  and  a  square  deal  for  all. 
By  avoiding  ever  acting  in  passion  and  by  always  show- 
ing a  determination  to  get  the  facts  and  judge  fairly, 
you  will  soon  be  able  to  get  at  the  real  truth  about 


84  MILITARY  MANPOWER 

each  offense,  and  to  learn  what  it  really  means  in  your 
organization  that  this  man  has  done  as  he  did.  Then 
you  may  decide  what  steps  to  take  for  the  best  interest 
of  all. 

Do  not  think  that  this  is  Utopian,  or  that  it  takes 
too  much  time.  It  is  a  leader's  business  to  have  time 
for  just  such  things, — and  you  really  save  time  by  it. 
Do  it  thoroughly  a  few  times,  and  you  may  thus 
discover  and  root  out  the  causes  for  soreness  and 
trouble,  and  establish  a  spirit  of  fairness  which  will  soon 
reward  you  by  freedom  from  having  any  offenses  to 
handle  at  all. 

111.  Actual  Punishment  Unnecessary.  A  pleas- 
ing fact  is  that  while  every  offense  must  be  taken 
cognizance  of,  it  does  not  always  have  to  be  actually 
punished.  It  may  often  be  made  the  subject  of  a 
plain  talk  to  all  of  the  men,  explaining  what  such  an 
offense  means  to  discipline  and  efficiency,  and  put  so 
strongly  that  a  better  result  is  obtained  without  giving 
any  punishment  at  all.  I  recall  an  instance  in  one  of 
the  inexperienced  war  organizations,  where  a  senior 
officer,  detailed  to  handle  the  case  of  a  man  actually 
guilty  of  sleeping  on  post,  made  it  so  strong  an  object 
lesson  in  his  talk  to  the  company  that  he  put  the  whole 
outfit,  officers  and  men,  on  their  feet  in  discipline,  and 
did  not  punish  the  sentinel  at  all.  So  do  not  feel  that 
punishment  must  always  follow  and  "fit  the  crime." 
Use  your  common  sense  judgment,  and  do  the  thing 
which  you  believe  will  best  promote  the  discipline  you 


THE  PRINCIPLES  OF  LEADERSHIP  85 

are  trying  to  inspire  in  all.  A  reprimand,  with  an 
explanation  of  what  the  offense  means  to  discipline,  is 
generally  punishment  enough. 

112.  The    Leader's    Responsibility.     If    in    the    end 
you  decide  that  punishment  must  be  given,  give  it 
yourself.     Be  very  jealous  of  the  authority  over  your 
own  men.     Do  not  let  any  one  interfere  with  it  or 
exercise  it  for  you  if  you  can  help  it.     You  want  them 
to  look  to  you  for  justice  and  see  in  you  the  seat  of 
authority  under  which  they  act  and  to  which  they  are 
responsible.     This   means  that  you  personally  handle 
every  case,  and  make  it  clear  that  the  decision  as  to  the 
punishment  is  the  result  of  your  own  judgment.     If 
the  offense  must  be  punished  with  more  severity  than 
you  are  empowered  to  administer,  then  only  send  it  to 
higher  authority.     It  is  a  poor  officer  who  lets  a  court 
run  the  discipline  of  his  command.     The  good  one 
appeals  to  it  only  in  the  rarest  cases,  and  then  because  he 
is  dealing  with  a  recalcitrant  who  will  not  respond  to 
decent  treatment,  and  is  therefore  a  candidate  for  dis- 
charge. 

113.  Prompt  Action    Necessary.     As  the  object  of 
both    rewards    and    punishments    is    the   psychologic 
effect  they  are  to  have,  action  in  both  cases  should  be 
taken  immediately  following  the  occasion,  while  it  is  still 
fresh  in  the  minds  of  all.     Let  your  men  realize  that 
you  are  right  on  the  job  of  commanding,  and  that  the 
conduct  of  each  is  a  matter  of  real  interest  to  you  and  to 
all.     To  overlook  offenses  and  neglects  that  appear 
willful,  causes  them  to  multiply,  and  discourages  the 


86  MILITARY  MANPOWER 

faithful.  The  word  or  nod  of  recognition  of  good 
work  is  immediate,  and  has  its  effect,  so  also  does  the 
first  step  in  recognition  or  correction  of  an  offense. 
This  step  may  be  an  admonition,  or  even  a  reprimand 
where  you  are  sure  it  is  justified.  But  it  is  generally 
to  call  the  man  up  and  ask  his  reason; — and  to  ask 
him  in  a  tone  that  assumes  that  he  has  a  reason,  and 
that  you  intend  to  give  it  fair  consideration.  You 
may  have  to  defer  action  for  further  investigation, 
but  you  have  taken  the  first  step  and  gotten  the  im- 
mediate effect.  It  only  remains  to  carry  on  to  a 
decision  as  circumstances  determine. 

114.  Care  of  Men.  Looking  after  the  mental  and 
bodily  welfare  of  the  men  is  an  interesting  and  important 
part  of  the  leader's  direct  responsibilities."  \  More  young 
officers  failed  in  this  duty  than  in  any  otFer  during  the 
war.  It  seemed  impossible  to  make  them  realize  what 
this  responsibility  meant  for  them  practically.  They 
would  not  get  down  to  the  constant  oversight  of  the 
homely  details  that  is  necessary  to  keep  men  fit  in  the 
field.  A  man  cannot  give  maximum  service  unless  he 
is  fit;  and  when  he  is  loosed  from  individual  respon- 
sibility by  his  membership  in  an  organization  it  seems 
impossible  to  make  him  keep  fit  without  constant 
supervision. 

This  duty  is  interesting  because  of  the  two  opposing 
considerations  that  have  to  be  kept  in  mind.  You  are 
to  build  up  the  men's  self  respect,  initiative,  individual 
responsibility  and  judgment;  and  therefore  must  not 
patronize  them,  coddle  them,  or  treat  them  like  chil- 


THE  PRINCIPLES  OF  LEADERSHIP  87 

dren.  On  the  other  hand  you  have  to  recognize  the 
characteristic  of  an  individual  in  a  group, — he  im- 
mediately shifts  individual  responsibility  to  the 
shoulders  of  the  group.  That  is  the  reason  why  every 
man  of  a  company  in  camp  will  continue  to  wade  through 
the  mud  to  reach  a  spring  where  five  minutes  work  by 
any  one  would  arrange  stepping  stones,  or  to  dip  water 
with  difficulty  from  a  shallow  stream  where  a  few 
minute's  work  would  dam  it  into  a  comfortable  pool; — 
and  no  one  of  them  would  do  either  of  these  helpful 
things  until  some  leader  came  along  and  ordered  it. 
So  the  leader  has  to  be  on  the  lookout  to  see  that  his 
men  do  all  the  things  that  are  necessary  for  their  com- 
fort and  welfare;  and  at  the  same  time  must  do  it  in 
such  a  way  as  to  develop  their  own  sense  of  respon- 
sibility and  initiative. 

115.  This  oversight  is  particularly  necessary  in  the 
field.  The  man  may  be  too  tired  or  inexperienced  to 
see  to  it  himself  that  he  has  a  comfortable  place  to  sleep. 
The  leader  knows  that  the  man's  work  of  the  morrow 
will  depend  on  the  restfulness  of  his  sleep,  and  therefore 
requires  him  to  make  himself  reasonably  comfortable. 
Above  all  he  gives  constant  attention  to  how  his  men 
are  fed,  especially  at  their  breakfasts.  He  sees  that 
they  have  the  best  available  shelter  and  comfort  for 
the  noon  rest.  All  this  is  simply  part  of  his  job  of 
grooming  and  conditioning  the  human,  animal  which 
he  is  using.  To  keep  the  men  fit  and  to  work  them 
hard  is  his  job, — and  the  beauty  of  it  is  that  the  more 
thoroughly  he  does  both,  the  happier  and  more  con- 


88  MILITARY  MANPOWER 

tented  they  are.  For  the  hard  play  of  tough  muscles 
and  the  stern  conquest  of  serious  obstacles  bring 
pleasureable  satisfaction  to  natural  instincts  in  a  healthy 
man, — instincts. designed  to  make  him  a  cheerful  and 
determined  actor  in  the  struggle  to  conquer  nature 
and  advance  civilization.  These  instincts  of  pugnacity 
and  of  joy  in  a  fight,  of  winning  out  no  matter  what  the 
obstacle,  are  readily  responsive  to  appeal,  and  most 
helpful  to  the  leader  who  uses  them  to  inspire  his  men 
to  greater  efforts.  There  is  no  credit  and  but  little 
pleasure  in  solving  easy  problems.  It  is  only  the  hard 
problem  that  is  worth  while. 

116.  Giving  Orders.  Many  a  beginner  questions  in 
his  heart  whether  he  can  get  the  men  to  obey  him  or  not. 
Perhaps  this  will  be  the  first  time  in  his  life  he  has  ever 
been  in  a  position  of  authority  to  give  orders.  He  has 
been  the  servant  rather  than  the  master;  a  private  in 
his  boyhood  gang  rather  than  its  captain.  He  has 
never  enjoyed  the  habit  of  command,  and,  unless 
carried  along  by  some  dominating  influence,  is  ill  at 
ease  in  giving  orders.  This  is  very  common  among 
young  corporals,  and  calls  for  patience  and  training 
before  they  are  good.  If  the  youngster  by  tone  or 
manner  in  giving  the  order  betray  that  there  is  any 
doubt  in  his  heart  that  it  will  be  obeyed,  he  simply 
invites  disobedience  out  of  the  Adam  that  is  in  every- 
one. Comrnou  exhibitions  of  this  uncertainty  are: 
the  sickening  apologetic  tone  and  even  words,  high 
pitched  shouting  of  the  order,  accompanying  pro- 


THE  PRINCIPLES  OF  LEADERSHIP  89 

faulty,  repeating  the  order  again  and  again,  and  threats 
as  to  what  will  happen  if  it  is  not  obeyed.  These  are 
all  exhibitions  of  inexperience  or  incompetence,  and 
are  sure  to  lead  to  trouble.  See  to  it  that  you  avoid 
every  one  of  them,  and  school  yourself  in  the  correct 
methods.  Here  are  some  suggestions. 

117.  How  to  Give  an  Order.     In  the  first  place  do 
not  give  too  many  orders,  give  as  few  as  possible., 
Be  sure  that  the  order  is  proper,  and  that  the  thing 
to  be  done  is  reasonable.     Then  decide  upon  a  suitable 
man  to  do  this  particular  thing,  call  this  man  by  name 
and  thus  get  his  attention,  and  then  in  a  quiet  tone 
tell  him  to  do  so  and  so,  just  as  a  baseball  captain  tells  a 
member  of  the  team  to  cover  third  base.     There  is  no 
question  of  obedience,  no  thought  of  it.     Your  quiet 
tone  does  not  assume  that  the  man  is  deaf,  or  a  surly 
dog,  or  a  criminal,  but  does  assume  that  he  is  an  intelli- 
gent loyal  member  of  the  team  of  which  you  are  cap- 
tain.    It  will  not  occur  to  him  to  disobey. 

118.  How  Not  to  Give  Orders.     On  the  other  hand 
you   will   yourself   stimulate   his   disobedience   if  by 
tone  or  words  you  insult  his  manliness,  question  his 
loyalty  and  obedience,  or  by  threats  dare  him  to  dis- 
obey.    We  see  this  often  illustrated  in  the  affairs  of 
daily  life,   where  men  untrained  in  the  exercise  of 
authority  are  required  to  exercise  it,  and  generally  give 
orders  in  such  manner  as  to  stir  up  trouble  rather  than 
to  get  cheerful  obedience.     This  is  certainly  true  with 
most  street  car  conductors  and  similar  holders  of  a 


*)  MILITARY  MANPOWER 

brief  authority.  By  observation  you  may  get  a  dozen 
lessons  daily  in  giving  orders, — ten  how  not  to  give 
them,  and  two  how  to  do  it  properly. 

I  once  visited  as  their  first  regular  army  instructor  a 
rather  new  troop  of  National  Guard  cavalry  that  had 
somewhere  gotten  the  idea  that  obedience  would  result 
in  proportion  to  noise.  Every  order  was  roared  at  the 
men,  and  generally  accompanied  by  a  volley  of  pro- 
fanity. It  was  an  astonishing  exhibition  of  not  know- 
ing how  to  handle  men,  and  naturally  did  not  command 
the  respect  or  obedience  of  the  meanest  man  in  the 
troop.  It  was  a  pleasure  to  watch  the  keenness  with 
which  they  grasped  the  correct  doctrine  of  command, 
and  to  see  the  discipline  of  the  whole  organization 
develop  under  the  consequent  change. 

119.  It  is  clear  then  that  disobedience  may  often  be 
the  direct  result  of  the  way  in  which  the  order  was 
given,  and  you  should  remember  this  when  investigating 
a  case.     While  it  may  not  justify  your  overlooking  this 
particular  offense,  it  should  enable  you  to  correct  the 
cause  of  the  trouble  and  thus  avoid  continued  offenses. 
You  may  be  able  to  teach  the  subordinate  to  give 
orders  correctly,  or  you  may  have  to  take  away  his 
authority. 

120.  The  Why  of  an  Order.     It  is  a  good  thing 
where  possible  to  give  the  reason  for  doing  a  thing 
at  the  same  time  that  you  give  the  instructions.    This 
not  only  enlists  the  man's  intelligent  interest  in  carry- 
ing them  out,  but  often  gives  him  a  chance  to  do  better 
work  because  he  understands  what  the  desired  result  is. 


THE  PRINCIPLES  OF  LEADERSHIP  91 

There  are  of  course  occasions  for  quick  action  and  for 
simple  action  when  this  would  not  be  reasonable. 
So  in  using  this  idea  of  telling  why,  there  are  two  things 
which  you  must  carefully  look  out  for:  first,  it  must 
never  appear  that  you  are  apologizing  for  giving  the 
order.  It  must  be  clear  that  you  are  explaining  what 
is  to  be  done,  not  why  it  is  being  ordered.  And,  second, 
avoid  cultivating  a  spirit  or  habit  which  would  make  a 
man  feel  free  to  stop  and  ask  why  when  simply  told  to 
do  a  thing,  as  in  an  emergency.  So  you  give  the  reason 
for  the  action  only  when  it  is  clear  that  the  circum- 
stances justify  it,  and  when  it  will  lead  to  better  results. 

121.  Explaining  the  reason  why  has  also  a  good 
psychological  effect,  particularly  in  the  early  days  of  a 
soldier's  training.     Step  by  step  he  sees  that  each  thing 
you  teach  him  or  require  of  him  has  a  good  reason 
behind  it.     His  loyalty  and  willing  obedience  are  thus 
developed.     He  comes  to  feel  that  what  you  require  is 
always    reasonable.     Disobedience    would    be    a    flat 
failure  on  his  part  to  do  his  share  hi  the  game.     He 
would  not  think  of  disobeying. 

122.  Necessity  for  Following  Up  Instructions.   Equally 
important  with  giving  instructions  is  to  see  that  they 
are  executed.     This  does  not  mean  that  you  are  to 
stand  glowering  at  your  man  until  he  has  moved. 
Go  about  your  business  in  absolute  assurance  that 
he  is  carrying  on;  but  if  he  does  fail,  be  sure  to  note 
it  and  take  action.     Too  many  leaders  feel  that  they 
have  done  their  full  part  when  they  have  given  the 
order.     To  overlook  even  slight  neglects  is  likely  to 


92  MILITARY  MANPOWER 

lead  to  more  serious  ones;  and  for  a  man  to  be  guilty 
of  direct  willful  disobedience  is  a  very  serious  thing 
in  any  organization,  as  it  threatens  the  discipline  of  all 
and  demands  drastic  action.  Do  not  let  it  be  true 
that  you  have  gradually  led  a  man  into  this  disobedience 
through  your  shiftless  leadership,  whether  due  to  your 
laziness,  ignorance,  or  lack  of  nerve  to  enforce  your 
authority. 

123. "  In  the  matter  of  how  instructions  are  carried  out, 
a  most  helpful  thing  is  to  make  it  a  rule  of  the  organiza- 
tion that  whenever  a  man  is  given  a  special  task  to  do, 
he  is  expected  to  report  the  fact  as  soon  as  it  is  done. 
You  can  see  the  advantages  of  this  compared  to  the 
method  of  telling  a  man  to  do  something  and  then 
letting  him  feel  that  you  have  no  further  interest  in  it. 
The  man  realizes  that  you  will  know  how  much  time  he 
took  to  do  it,  and  you  realize  that  your  duty  is  not 
fully  done  when  the  instructions  are  given.  It  gives 
you  a  chance  to  check  up  on  his  execution  and  to 
praise  his  expedition  or  excellence;  and  it  gives  the 
man  a  chance  to  try  to  win  this  praise.  It  is  as  though 
a  father  said,  when  giving  his  son  a  certain  task,  "Let 
me  know  when  you  are  through."  He  would  get 
better  results  then  he  would  if  he  left  the  lad  alone 
with  the  feeling  that  his  father  would  take  no  further 
interest  in  it. 

124.  Willful  Disobedience.  But  with  all  regard 
for  everything  on  your  part,  it  may  yet  happen  that 
you  will  meet  a  case  of  direct  willful  disobedience  in 


THE  PRINCIPLES  OF  LEADERSHIP  93 

some  certain  matter.  Some  condition  quite  outside 
your  knowledge  or  control  may  have  caused  it.  If  you 
want  to  handle  this  case  wisely  and  save  the  man  to 
the  organization,  you  must  realize  how  his  mind  is 
working  and  act  accordingly.  He  is  concentrating  his 
faculties  in  opposition  to  this  particular  thing; — forcing 
them  from  the  normal  easier  channels  of  obedience, 
he  has  to  concentrate  them  to  the  task  of  breaking  out 
this  new  channel  of  disobedience.  He  has  "his  mind 
set  on  it,"  as  the  phrase  goes.  To  win  him  over  to 
obedience  you  must  first  divert  his  faculties  from  this 
concentration.  Require  him  quietly  to  do  some  simple 
thing  like  handing  you  some  article  or  adjusting  his 
clothing,  anything  that  you  are  quite  sure  that  he  will 
do  for  you.  Then  by  easy  stages  you  may  develop 
a  state  of  mind  which  will  make  it  possible  to  discuss  the 
original  trouble  reasonably,  thus  regaining  your  control 
and  saving  him  from  grave  consequences.  We  have  a 
like  case  in  horse  training.  Where  the  trainer  persists 
in  making  him  do  some  one  movement  a  horse  often 
becomes  stubborn  and  refuses  to  move  at  all.  The 
trainer  then  changes  absolutely  to  some  simple  thing 
which  the  horse  will  do  at  command, — perhaps  to  walk 
and  halt  and  walk  again.  He  thus  reestablishes  con- 
trol, and  then  through  steps  that  the  horse  will  perform 
returns  gradually  to  the  first  test  of  obedience  and  finds 
him  tractable.  It  takes  patience  and  a  high  order  of 
leadership  to  save  a  man  in  such  serious  cases  as  this, 
but  you  will  take  joy  and  satisfaction  in  having  done  it. 


94  MILITARY  MANPOWER 

Any  "goat"  can  prefer  charges  and  have  him  severely 
punished.  You  may  be  able  to  do  better  than  that, 
and  win  loyal  service  in  consequence. 

126.  Orders  Rarely  Necessary.  But  after  all  the 
best  thing  about  giving  orders  is  not  to  have  to  give 
them.  In  the  general  case,  the  better  the  leadership 
the  fewer  the  orders  given.  Teamwork,  cooperation, 
initiative  and  loyalty  of  subordinates,  all  these  develop- 
ments from  intelligent  leadership  make  orders  largely 
unnecessary, — and  things  are  done  in  response  to  sug- 
gestions and  in  carrying  out  instructions  as  to  what  is 
to  be  done.  We  may  envy  the  leader  whose  men 
jump  in  response  to  his  quiet  firm  tone  of  command. 
But  do  not  imagine  that  he  picked  this  ability  ripe 
for  the  eating  from  any  tree  of  knowledge  or  life. 
He  has  developed  a  strong  character  and  a  knowledge  of 
human  nature  in  some  practical  school,  learned  that 
self-control  is  the  first  step  in  controlling  others,  and 
that  men  respond  in  kind  to  the  treatment  they  receive. 

126.  The  Tone  of  Voice.  Not  only  in  giving  orders 
but  in  all  your  verbal  intercourse,  the  tone  of  your  voice 
plays  a  part  quite  worthy  your  consideration.  It  is  a 
potent  element  of  your  personality  in  its_  effect  on 
others,  and  easily  within  your  own  control. ;  It  may 
interest  you  to  the  point  of  regarding  your  tones  here- 
after to  realize  the  important  part  that  human  speech 
has  played  in  our  development  from  pure  animalism. 
Centuries  no  doubt  passed  before  primitive  man  learned 
the  use  of  language.  It  was  the  one  big  step  by  which 
he  proved  his  superiority  over  the  other  animals  of 


THE  PRINCIPLES  OF  LEADERSHIP  95 

creation  and  assured  his  progress.  For  language  is 
the  foundation,  as  it  is  the  agent,  of  all  knowledge;  and 
has  alone  made  possible  our  present  accomplishment. 
Yet  we  see  men  to-day  so  blind  to  this,  so  indifferent 
to  this  fundamental  difference  between  themselves  and 
the  beasts,  that  they  allow  themselves  to  roar  and  growl 
and  whine  and  chatter  in  close  similarity  to  certain  well 
known  species.  Others  bungle  its  use  deplorably,  so 
one  may  barely  catch  their  fading  tones  or  must  shrink 
inwardly  from  their  rasping  ones.  Men  actually 
attempt  to  win  the  minds  of  others  and  yet  speak  in 
tones  so  repellent  that  convention  alone  makes  us  stay 
to  listen  to  them.  It  is  a  pity  they  do  not  think  'to 
hear  themselves  as  others  hear  them/  and  thus  learn 
not  to  sacrifice  longer  this  natural  asset.  For  half  the 
power  of  speech  is  in  the  tone. 

We  can  all  recall  cases  enough  where  it  was  the  tone 
of  voice  that  caused  the  trouble.  "It  wasn't  so  much 
the  thing  he  said,  as  the  nasty  way  he  said  it"  has  caused 
many  a  man  to  go  to  the  mat.  But  it  is  not  alone  in 
making  trouble  that  the  tone  of  voice  can  accomplish 
so  much.  We  have  also  seen  the  cool  quiet  tone  of  a 
leader  bringing  order  out  of  chaos  and  reestablishing 
control  and  confidence  among  excited  men;  the  virile 
animated  tone  putting  "peP"  into  men's  movements; 
and  the  firm  confident  tone  winning  obedient  following 
through  danger  and  hardship.  The  power  of  speech 
is  thus  seen  to  be  tremendous; — let  us  think  to  use  it  to 
advantage,  and  as  becomes  members  of  the  human  race. 

127.  Supervision.     It   is   plain  that  the   leader's 


96  MILITARY  MANPOWER 

job  is  one  of  supervision  and  direction.  It  is  his  busi- 
ness to  see  that  each  member  does  his  part  to  the  best 
advantage  of  the  team,  and  so  to  know  the  individual 
capacities  of  his  men  that  he  can  assign  the  right  man 
to  each  duty.  This,  as  in  fact  do  all  the  other  duties  of 
leadership,  requires  him  to  be  continually  watching  the 
individual  performances  of  his  men,  commending,  cor- 
recting, and  coordinating  their  efforts.  This  forbids 
his  actually  taking  part  in  any  work  himself,  not 
because  to  do  so  would  be  beneath  his  dignity,  but 
because  to  become  involved  in  doing  the  actual  work 
would  distract  his  attention  from  the  duties  of  super- 
vision, and  many  things  would  be  going  on  without  his 
knowledge.  If  the  corporal  shows  himself  anxious 
to  use  the  pick  or  shovel,  there  is  always  some  private 
willing  to  lend  him  the  tools  and  watch  his  efforts  with 
assumed  interest.  I  recall  the  case  of  an  officer  charged 
with  building  a  piece  of  government  road  in  the  moun- 
tains of  California.  No  one  could  have  been  more 
faithful;  he  set  a  wonderful  example  of  energy,  but 
expended  it  all  on  personally  working  the  road  plow. 
Meantime  the  contractor  was  putting  in  blind  culverts 
and  otherwise  so  slighting  his  work  that  most  of  the 
road  slid  down  the  mountain  that  winter. 

There  are  always  some  members  of  the  team  who 
need  to  be  held  up  to  their  work.  For  the  leader  to 
allow  them  to  "get  away  with  it"  in  shirking  their 
parts  of  the  task,  would  naturally  cause  chagrin  to  the 
others.  The  leader  is  responsible  for  the  spirit  of  team 
work,  which  requires  that  each  man  may  feel  sure  that 


THE  PRINCIPLES  OF  LEADERSHIP  97 

all  the  others  are  equally  faithful  in  doing  each  his  part — 
and  he  must  therefore  see  to  it  that  they  are.  Of  course 
conditions  may  arise,  as  when  the  task  is  unfamiliar  or 
peculiarly  difficult,  when  the  leader  may  jump  in  for, a 
minute  to  show  the  men  how  or  to  set  the  pace, — but 
he  should  never  put  himself  in  as  an  actual  performer 
of  the  work. 

128.  Choosing  Men  for  Tasks.  The  duties  of  a 
leader  constantly  require  him  to  be  picking  some  man 
to  do  this  task  or  that.  In  the  minds  of  his  men  this  is 
always  a  test  of  both  his  ability  and  fairness, — and  he 
wants  to  prove  that  he  has  both.  He  does  this  by  pick- 
ing the  right  man  for  the  job,  the  right  man  not  alone 
because  he  is  the  best  qualified  but  because  everything 
considered  it  is  best  for  the  team  that  he  be  chosen. 
This  requires  that  the  leader  know  his  men's  capacities 
and  their  spirit,  and  that  he  shall  have  kept  general 
track  of  their  conduct  and  work.  Each  group  generally 
has  certain  cheerful  willing  souls  who  seem  almost  to 
invite  the  task.  The  leader  who  is  not  sure  his  orders 
will  be  obeyed  will  always  pick  one  of  these  men  to 
avoid  the  possibility  of  disobedience.  The  careless 
leader  will  pick  one  because  that  is  the  easiest  course. 
Both  would  be  wrong.  They  would  thus  fail  in  fair- 
ness, and,  by  putting  extra  work  on  the  more  willing, 
put  a  premium  on  being  mean  spirited  and  so  injure 
the  group  discipline.  They  would  do  better  to  choose 
the  lazy  or  sullen  ones  for  the  extra  work,  thus  putting 
the  premium  on  cheerfulness,  and  showing  that  they  had 
a  sense  of  justice  and  an  ability  to  run  the  team. 


98  MILITARY  MANPOWER 

129.  Cheerfulness.  It  is  plain  that  men  cannot 
do  good  work  in  an  atmosphere  of  gloom.  Elastic 
muscles,  alert  minds,  superior  energy  and  endurance 
come  from  cheerful  spirits  and  happy  hearts.  That 
platoon  is  unfortunate  which  does  not  contain  at  least 
one  indomnitable  soul  (generally  Irish)  who  will  joke 
and  jolly  the  crowd  along  through  hardships  and  to 
far  greater  accomplishment.  The  boatswain  leads 
the  sailors  in  a  swinging  song  or  in  cheering  as  they 
haul  the  heavy  sheet.  He  puts  this  spirit  into  them 
for  the  greater  exertions  they  will  make.  One  group 
of  marching  soldiers  will  sing  and  joke  themselves 
happily  into  camp,  when  other  grim  and  silent  ones  will 
barely  drag  themselves  in  for  their  fatigue.  Yet  true 
as  all  this  is  there  are  leaders  who  sacrifice  it  all  by  such 
surly,  inconsiderate,  dominating  control  as  to  keep 
their  men  sore  and  heavy  hearted,  discouraged  with 
themselves  and  the  work,  and  indifferent  to  results. 
These  leaders  create  an  atmosphere  of  impenetrable 
gloom,  and  then  expect  the  impossible  in  demanding 
snappy  work.  Cheerfulness  and  hopefulness  must 
always  emanate  from  the  leader, — no  possible  hardship 
or  obstacle  may  justify  his  failing  to  radiate  these  help- 
ful qualities.  They  shine  out  from  a  character  too 
strong  and  resourceful  to  be  overcome  by  any  obstacle, 
too  confident  of  the  excellence  of  his  men  and  their 
ability  to  overcome  it  to  be  other  than  cheerful  in 
meeting  it.  You  will  find  occasions  when  it  will  test 
your  own  courage,  physical  fitness  and  vitality  to  do 
this,  for  you  must  give  of  your  spirit  to  put  spirit 


THE  PRINCIPLES  OF  LEADERSHIP  99 

into  the  men,  and  by  the  sheer  force  of  your  cheerful 
determination  lead  them  through  to  a  happy  conclusion. 

130.  Growling  Permissible.  As  to  growling  and 
grumbling  and  "kicking  agin  the  government,"  it  all 
depends  on  who  does  it  and  how  he  does  it.  A  certain 
amount  of  thus  letting  off  steam  seems  good  for  the  soul 
of  man, — and  so  far  should  not  be  denied  to  your  men. 
You  may  ignore  it,  make  light  of  it,  and  even  sometimes 
get  a  good  laugh  out  of  it  and  so  clear  the  atmosphere. 
You  must  never  indulge  in  it  yourself  in  the  hearing 
of  the  men.  And  if  it  smack  of  real  disloyalty,  then 
you  may  not  tolerate  it,  for  it  will  undermine  morale 
and  injure  the  spirit  of  putting  things  over  at  all  costs. 
You  must  know  your  men  so  you  may  use  good  sense 
about  taking  their  vaporings  too  seriously,  and  yet 
avoid  anything  like  disloyalty.  As  members  of  a  group 
men  lose  much  of  their  individual  responsibility  and 
become  more  or  less  like  children.  You  consider  this  as 
you  judge  their  talk  together. 

I  recall  the  conduct  of  a  French  lieutenant  whose 
platoon,  just  out  of  a  severe  fight,  was  ordered  to  go 
back  into  it  in  fifteen  minutes.  He  sat  complacently 
smoking  while  his  resting  men  audibly  growled  about 
it  and  told  each  other  the  dire  things  that  would  take 
place  before  they  would  go  in  again.  He  knew  his 
men  and  let  them  growl  it  out,  and  when  the  time  was 
up  not  one  of  them  hesitated  to  obey  his  order  to  fall  in 
and  swing  back  into  the  fight.  In  his  place  a  hot  headed 
youngster  could  easily  have  started  a  mutiny.  And 
equally  true,  a  few  vicious  disloyal  spirits  among  those 


100  MILITARY  MANPOWER 

men  would  have  made  it  wrong  for  the  lieutenant  to 
have  allowed  them  to  growl  and  threaten.  Such  situa- 
tions require  a  level  head  and  a  knowledge  of  the  true 
spirit  of  the  men,  and  are  interesting  tests  of  your 
qualifications  for  leadership. 

131.  Loyalty    by    Example.     One    of    the    basic 
things  the  leader  has  to  develop  in  his  men  is  loyalty, — 
and  loyalty  not  alone  to  him  and  to  the  team,  but  to 
the  larger  organization.     To  this  end  he  may  do  much 
by  the  power  of  his  own  example  in  cheerfully  carrying 
out  instructions  from  higher  authority.     If  you  are 
ordered  to  do  some  disagreeable  thing,  do  not  try  for 
cheap  popularity  by  saying  to  the  men  "so  and  so  has 
ordered  this,  and  we  have  got  to  do  it."     Accept  the  full 
responsibility  of  your  subordinate  office,  and  take  your 
men  loyally  and  unquestioningly  through  the  wqrk. 
Your  team  is  a  member  of  the  larger  team,  and  should 
play  its  part  therein  as  loyally  and  keenly  as  you  want 
the  individuals  to  play  their  parts  in  your  team.     You 
should  try  to  arouse  their  pride  in  having  their  team 
do  its  part  well,  their  interest  in  the  success  of  the  larger 
team,  and  their  belief  in  the  ability  of  its  leader. 

132.  When    to   Question    Orders.     Any    questioning 
before  your  men  of   the  wisdom  of  instructions  from 
higher  authority,  any  grumbling  from  you  about  their 
fairness,  would  injure  this  fine  spirit  of  loyalty  and  of 
cooperation  in  the  larger  team.     It  would  show  you 
up  as  unworthy  your  position  of  responsibility  in  the 
organization,  and  thus  hurt  the  men's  respect  for  you. 
If  you  have  an  honest  question  of  the  fairness  or  wisdom 


THE  PRINCIPLES  O'F  'LEAC'^RSim1  i'Ol 

of  the  instructions,  go  to  higher  authority  yourself  and 
present  your  reasons.  That  is  part  of  your  business 
both  as  guardian  of  your  men's  welfare,  and  as  a  loyal 
member  of  the  whole  organization.  This  is  a  delicate 
matter,  involving  your  own  sense  of  subordination,  and 
your  judgment  as  to  what  is  really  best.  It  can  never 
be  done  in  a  spirit  of  brag  or  bluster,  but  only  quietly, 
in  a  spirit  of  loyalty,  true  subordination,  and  desire  for 
the  best  interests  of  the  whole.  Occasions  for  such 
action  are  happily  very  rare, — if  your  larger  organiza- 
tion is  in  reasonably  good  hands. 

133.  Receiving  Instructions.     When  you  receive 
instructions  from  higher  authority  be  sure  you  get  their 
true  meaning  before  you  begin  to  act.     The  subordinate 
with  the  quick  cheerful  "Yes,  sir,"  and  away  to  the 
task,  leaves  a  pleasant  sensation  until  we  discover  that 
he  has  bungled  the  job  because  he  did  not  half  under- 
stand what  was  wanted.     Take  time  to  understand, 
but  do  not  quibble  about  little  details  nor  fuss  about  the 
way  in  which  the  order  is  expressed.     You  are  expected 
to  use  your  own  sense  and  ingenuity  in  executing  it, 
so  be  sure  that  you  have  grasped  the  spirit  and  purpose 
of  the  order,  and  then  go  to  its  execution  with  an 
enthusiasm  and  loyalty  which  will  carry  the   same 
spirit  to  the  men. 

134.  Talking   to    Men.     There   is   much   for  the 
leader  to  consider  in  the  matter  of  talking  to  his  sub- 
ordinates.    He  may  not  talk  enough,  or  he  may  talk 
too  much.     He  must  explain  to  all  the  object,  organiza- 
tion and  plan  of  any  new  undertaking.     He  thus  gets 


K)2  MILITARY  •  MANPOWER 

better  results  and  saves  a  lot  of  talking  later.  On  the 
other  hand  a  reputation  for  constantly  "sounding  off" 
as  they  say  on  the  street  and  especially  for  preaching, 
would  practically  ruin  him.  A  leader  should  observe 
the  rule  not  to  talk  unless  he  has  something  worth 
saying,  and  that  nothing  is  worth  saying  unless  it  is 
worth  being  listened  to.  The  habit  of  talking  without 
demanding  the  close  attention  of  those  concerned  is 
inexcusable,  and  makes  trouble  and  misunderstandings 
later.  Yet  many  leaders  are  guilty  of  it,  and  expect  to 
repeat  their  instructions  over  and  over  before  they  are 
understood.  This  is  partly  their  fault  and  partly  that 
of  the  listeners, — but  the  leaders  are  responsible  for 
both  faults.  In  the  first  place  the  leader  must  talk 
directly  to  the  point.  If  he  has  not  this  ability,  he  must 
self-train  in  it,  which  he  may  daily  do  to  advantage, 
both  at  home  and  abroad.  Let  him  first  think  what  he 
has  to  say,  even  exactly  how  he  is  going  to  say  it, — 
then  say  it  and  stop.  He  will  not  talk  as  much,  but  it 
will  go  farther.  There  are  many  men  so  unaccustomed 
to  saying  things  which  really  count,  that  they  become 
embarrassed  and  confused  when  they  find  themselves 
the  object  of  close  attention.  Yet  the  leader  must 
meet  this,  for  holding  the  close  attention  of  the  men  is 
the  second  and  equally  important  part  of  his  respon- 
sibility in  talking  successfully. 

136.  Demanding  Attention  of  All.  When  you  have 
anything  to  say,  to  one  man  or  to  many,  get  ///// 
attention  first,  and  insist  on  having  it  all  the  time  you  are 
talking.  We  so  often  see  the  absurd  situation  of  a 


THE  PRINCIPLES  OF  LEADERSHIP  103 

leader  making  remarks  which  he  considers  important 
and  the  men  of  his  group  plainly  giving  attention  to 
other  matters,  even  engaging  in  side  conversations. 
When  you  have  to  talk  to  a  number  of  men,  call  them 
all  about  you,  and  in  front  of  you  where  you  can  see 
all  their  faces,  and  as  near  you  as  practicable  so  you 
may  speak  if  possible  in  a  conversational  tone.  You 
will  have  to  give  this  constant  attention,  for  the  devil 
prompts  some  men  always  to  slip  around  behind  you, 
while  others  always  take  the  most  distant  seats  and 
await  the  Biblical  invitation  to  come  forward.  With  the 
men  thus  before  you,  you  can  make  sure  that  your 
points  tell.  If  an  interruption  occurs,  immediately 
stop  talking  until  all  can  give  attention  again.  If  your 
remarks  are  for  everybody,  everybody  should  hear  them 
and  you  are  responsible  that  they  do.  Make  that  a 
rule,  stick  to  it  yourself,  and  you  should  have  no 
trouble. 

136.  Talking  to  Individuals.  In  talking  to  an 
individual,  try  to  be  so  clear  and  definite  that  you  will 
not  have  to  repeat,  and  let  it  be  understood  that  you 
expect  such  attention  from  him  that  repetition  will  not 
be  necessary.  Of  course,  you  sometimes  have  to  deal 
with  a  mind  so  untrained  in  concentration  that  it  cannot 
take  things  in  and  retain  them,  and  you  will  have  to  be 
patient  in  making  yourself  understood.  The  meanest 
type  of  mind  is  that  which  keeps  thinking,  while  you 
are  talking,  of  what  it  is  going  to  say  when  it  gets  a 
chance,  and  gives  your  remarks  just  enough  attention 
to  note  when  a  pause  comes  so  it  may  begin  to  talk. 


104  MILITARY  MANPOWER 

This  kind  of  man  is  a  curse  in  any  walk  of  life,  and  not 
to  be  tolerated  in  the  Service.  The  art  of  listening  is  a 
valuable  one.  Every  one  should  cultivate  the  habit 
of  concentrated  attention  to  what  is  being  said  if  it 
means  anything  to  him.  This  is  particularly  true  of 
receiving  verbal  instructions,  and  promotion  is  more 
likely  to  come  to  one  of  whom  his  superior  can  report 
that  "he  gives  his  full  attention  when  you  tell  him 
anything,  and  you  never  have  to  repeat." 

137.  Example   Better    Than    Talk.     In  the  line  of 
not  talking  too  much,  it  is  well  to  remember  that 
American  spirit  is  not  aroused  by  Napoleonic  addresses 
before   the   fight.     If  the  leader  wants  keenness  and 
enthusiasm  in  doing  a  piece  of  work,  he  arouses  them 
rather  by  example  than  by  words.     You  cannot  put 
your  men  "on  their  toes"  at  drill  by  telling  them  that 
you  want  them  there.     You  must  bring  the  "follow 
me"  spirit  to  its  conduct,  and  put  so  much  cheerful 
energy  and  vitality  into  it  that  your  spirit  is  contagious, 
By  keen  direction,  happy  suggestions,  possibly  a  bit  of 
competition,   and   most  of  all  by  example  you  put 
your  men  on  their  toes  unconsciously,  and  hold  them 
there  till  the  drill  is  over.     Then  you  may  all  talk 
about  how  good  it  was,  and  share  the  credit. 

138.  Proper  Subjects  for  Talk.     On  the  other  hand 
there  are  things  that  you  must  talk  about.    Your 
subordinates  must  understand  your  plans  for  you  want 
their  cooperation  in  carrying  them  out.     Remember 
that  while  you  are  dealing  with  intelligent  men,  they 
still  are  not  wizards  to  be  able  to  divine  your  thoughts. 


THE  PRINCIPLES  OF  LEADERSHIP  105 

So  do  not  assume  a  manner  of  aloofness  and  superiority, 
or  wrap  yourself  and  the  plan  in  an  atmosphere  of 
mystery.  Explain  frankly  what  you  are  getting  at 
and  how  you  intend  to  get  at  it.  The  atmosphere  you 
want  is  one  of  mutual  understanding  and  confidence. 
You  get  it,  however,  not  by  saying  you  have  it,  but  by 
showing  you  have  it  in  the  way  you  treat  the  men. 

Another  subject  for  you  to  talk  on  is  discipline,  its 
objects  and  its  necessity.  Many  men  have  never 
thought  about  it,  never  realized  the  necessity  for 
obedience  and  the  advantages  of  cheerful  obedience, 
never  heard  of  teamwork  or  thought  of  loyalty  to 
comrades.  As  occasions  arise  you  can  explain  these 
things  in  a  way  to  make  them  interesting  and  very  real 
influences  on  the  men's  conduct.  This  helps  build  up 
the  group  spirit  you  want.  You  may  often  get  better 
results  from  explaining  the  bad  effects  that  an  offense 
has  on  the  discipline  and  reputation  of  the  group  than 
you  would  from  punishing  it.  A  not  inconsiderable 
factor  in  building  morale  is  the  effect  from  the  intimate 
talks  by  the  leader  on  all  the  subjects  in  which  morale 
finds  its  roots.  This  important  matter  is  now  in  the 
hands  of  a  separate  section  of  the  General  Staff,  and  all 
manner  of  material  will  be  available  for  your  use.  The 
point  here  is  that  you  use  it  with  an  earnestness  and 
sincere  belief  that  will  carry  conviction.  Otherwise  it 
will  be  as  valueless  as  the  singsong  reading  of  the 
Articles  of  War,  which  leaves  the  men  convinced  that 
they  are  meaningless. 

139.  Talks  by  the  Commander.    The  larger  the 


106  MILITARY  MANPOWER 

command,  the  more  important  that  the  commander 
make  occasions  for  assembling  all  his  subordinate 
leaders  in  a  body  and  talking  to  them  of  his  policies,  his 
plans,  and  of  how  things  are  going  in  general.  The  day 
has  passed  when  the  source  of  authority  is  supposed 
to  be  veiled  in  awe-inspiring  majesty,  whence  issue 
commands  for  servile  obedience.  That  commander 
who  denies  close  relationship  to  his  subordinate  leaders, 
who  does  not  take  them  into  his  confidence  and  let  them 
know  his  plans  and  how  he  proposes  to  carry  them  out, 
creates  to-day  the  suspicion  that  he  is  not  sure  of  himself 
in  his  job  or  of  the  correctness  of  his  plans  and  purposes. 
The  clever  officer  does  not  fear  close  scrutiny  and  does 
seek  cooperation  and  suggestion.  He  wants  to  be  the 
captain  of  a  team  whose  members  give  intelligent 
cooperation;  so  he  gives  them  a  chance.  For  this  pur- 
pose he  brings  them  together  in  a  body  where  shoulder 
to  shoulder  they  feel  their  comradeship  in  a  common 
cause,  where  they  all  get  the  inspiration  of  their  cap- 
tain's personal  leadership,  and  absorb  enthusiasm  from 
his  personal  presentation  of  his  hopes  and  plans.  All 
are  thus  filled  with  a  common  purpose  and  return  to 
their  tasks  each  better  fitted  and  more  highly  deter- 
mined to  play  his  part  to  the  best  advantage  of  the 
larger  organization.  Thus  in  the  late  war  the  most 
successful  American  commanders,  like  General  Sum- 
merall,  took  time  and  pains  to  go  about  before  a  battle 
and  explain  in  person  to  assembled  groups  of  their 
commands  the  general  plan  of  the  coming  action  and 
the  exact  part  each  particular  group  was  to  play. 


THE  PRINCIPLES  OF  LEADERSHIP  107 

There  was  no  effort  at  oratorical  appeal  to  passion  or 
patriotism,  simply  a  recognition  of  the  men's  ability 
and  willingness  to  do  their  full  part  if  they  only  knew 
what  it  was.  We  Americans  are  all  "from  Missouri," 
and  need  to  be  shown.  But  when  we  once  understand 
what  is  wanted,  we  jump  in  heartily  and  put  it  over. 

140.  Mutual   Acquaintance   Among   Subordi- 
nates. Another  important  thing  is  to  get  subordinates 
together  in  such  a  way  that  they  will  get  to  know  each 
other  personally.     They  are  really  partners  in  the  same 
enterprise,  and  a  knowledge  of  each  other's  personal 
equation   is   quite   indispensable   to   their   successful 
team  work,  while  personal  acquaintance  and  even  better 
friendship,  will  add  tremendously  to  their  efficiency. 
Thus  in  battle  the  covering  fire  of  artillery  is  far  more 
efficient  when  its  commander  knows  that  his  friend 
Bill  is  out  there  commanding  the  infantry.     Therefore 
we  take  pains  to  bring  those  two  commanders  into 
personal  relationship  before  the  battle.     It  is  important 
in  any  command  from  a  squad  up  that  the  leader  make 
occasions   for   getting   his    subordinates   together   in 
friendly  personal  relations.     Hence  the  British  regi- 
mental mess,  and  the  American  social  functions.    The 
leader   maintains   and   insists   upon   good   fellowship 
among  his  subordinates  and  thus  secures  good  team- 
work. 

141.  Relationship   Between   Leader   and   Men. 
The  relationship  which  should  exist  between  the  leader 
and  his  men  is  a  difficult  thing  to  explain  accurately. 
It  depends  largely  on  the  leader's  personality,  and 


r 


( 


108  MILITARY  MANPOWER 

accordingly  each  must  work  this  out  for  himself.  >  This 
is  almost  always  a  matter  of  difficulty  and  embarrass- 

,  ment  for  beginners,  who  are  apt  to  go  to  an  unhappy 
extreme  either  in  surrounding  themselves  with  an 

/  atmosphere  of  isolation  and  autocracy  or  ^in  showing 
too  much  familiarity  and  even  frivolity.  ILet  them 
first  remember  that  the  leader  is  not  an  autocrat  or 
dictator,  but  the  foremost  of  his  companions^'  This 
position  puts  responsibility  and  authority  in  his  hands, 
and  a  certain  restraint  on  the  perfect  freedom  of  his 
relations  with  the  others.  He  may  and  should  be  in 
relations  of  mutual  and  absolutely  impartial  friendshp 
and  confidence  with  his  men,  yet  there  must  remain  in 
reserve  a  something  of  superiority  and  true  dignity 
which  they  recognize,  and  which  makes  it  natural  for 
them  to  respect  him  and  obey  his  instructions.  He 
may  be  friendly,  but  must  not  be  familiar.  He  should 
be  courteous  and  thoughtful  for  their  interests,  but  must 
never  be  patronizing. 

142.  You  will  notice  that  a  real  gentleman  or  lady  is 
always  courteous  to  those  in  subordinate  positions. 
The  real  superior  has  no  anxiety  about  his  prestige  and 
is  quietly  at  ease  in  dealing  with  subordinates.  Those 
who  bully  them  are  thus  showing  that  they  Save  not 
had  long  experience  in  exercising  authority.  The  true 
spirit  of  America  believes  in  the  dignity  of  labor.  Our 
nation  was  built  in  the  actual  sweat  of  our  forebears, 
who  hewed  the  forests  and  tilled  the  soil  with  their  own 
hands  and  did  not  attempt  to  enslave  the  labor  of  the 
natives  as  did  the  pioneers  who  colonized  the  countries 


THE  PRINCIPLES  OF  LEADERSHIP  109 

further  south.  That  spirit  survives  and  makes  it 
natural  for  us  to  respect  those  who  do  their  parts  well  in 
whatever  activity  fortune  has  placed  them.  That  is 
the  spirit  by  which  the  leader  is  to  regulate  his  conduct, 
and  you  can  see  how  he  would  offend  it  by  anything 
like  patronage  or  exhibitions  of  either  pompous  au- 
thority or  childish  familiarity.  Both  men  and  leader 
are  each  entitled  to  the  serious  consideration  of  the 
other,  and  to  respect  in  direct  proportion  to  the  ability 
each  shows  in  performing  his  own  part  on  the  team, 
and  each  will  be  judged  by  this  test.  As  an  officer  in 
one  of  the  new  war  organizations  put  it  to  his  men  in 
explaining  the  spirit  he  sought  in  training,  "We  are  all 
on  the  same  team.  It  happens  that  I  am  in  the  pitch- 
er's box  now,  but  some  day  each  one  of  us  will  have  to 
come  to  the  bat." 

143.  Reception  of  New  Men.  The  ultimate  suc- 
cess of  a  new  man  joining  an  outfit  depends  of  course  on 
the  real  stuff  that  is  in  him.  But  much  can  be  done  to 
hasten  this  success.  It  has  been  the  universal  practice 
of  the  ages  to  haze  the  newcomer,  and  thus  bring  out 
this  real  stuff  if  it  is  there.  But  this  is  not  approved 
in  modern  practice,  which  aims  to  get  good  results 
quicker  through  encouragement,  and  by  showing  him 
how,  rather  than  from  "barfing"  him  on  the  head  with 
a  marlin  spike  for  not  knowing.  Modern  battle  con- 
ditions demand  manliness  and  self-respect  in  the  soldier. 
A  beginner's  "freshness"  or  lack  of  earnestness  may  be 
corrected  by  methods  less  expensive  to  character  than 
those  which  injure  these  essential  qualities. 


110  MILITARY  MANPOWER 

So  this  becomes  another  care  for  the  leader,  who  must 
see  that  each  new  man  gets  the  right  start  if  possible. 
You  may  rely  on  the  fact  that  most  men  start  with  the 
intention  to  make  good.  It  remains  for  you  to  en- 
courage them  along  that  line  and  try  to  prevent  their 
being  switched  to  the  other  track.  To  most  of  them  an 
early  exhibition  of  friendly  personal  interest  in  how 
they  are  coming  on  will  be  a  great  help.  There  will  be 
many  things  that  they  do  not  understand,  and  some 
real  or  fancied  troubles.  This  is  your  chance  to  establish 
a  relation  of  confidence  in  which  they  form  the  habit  of 
bringing  these  troubles  to  you  for  solution,  instead  of 
letting  them  rankle  in  their  minds  and  act  as  deterrents 
to  the  good  impulses  for  work.  This  gives  you  many 
opportunities  for  improving  the  group  spirit  and  may 
some  day  be  the  means  of  clearing  up  real  grievances 
which  might  otherwise  lead  to  serious  trouble. 

The  man's  future  depends  largely  on  the  start  he 
gets,  on  his  first  impressions  of  the  spirit  of  the  outfit, 
and  on  the  habits  he  personally  forms.  The  smarter 
he  finds  the  outfit  to  be,  the  more  pride  he  will  take  in 
belonging  to  it.  The  closer  attention  he  is  forced  to 
give  to  the  exact  performance  of  little  details  the 
sooner  he  will  get  the  habit  of  doing  things  exactly 
right,  and  the  sooner  he  will  become  a  helpful  member 
of  the  team.  You  can  teach  new  tricks  to  new  men 
much  more  easily  than  you  can  to  old  ones,  whose  well 
formed  habits  you  must  break  before  you  can  implant 
the  new  ones.  New  men  are  a  valuable  asset  to  a  live 


THE  PRINCIPLES  OF  LEADERSHIP  111 

leader,  for  he  can  come  nearer  making  them  the  kind 
of  men  he  wants.  ^ 

144.  Depending  on  a  Man. !  You  can  make  a  man 
feel  so  strongly  that  you  are  trusting  him  to  play  fair 
in  a  certain  matter,  "put  it  up  to  him"  in  such  a  way, 
that  his  sense  of  manhood  and  good  sportsmanship 
will  make  him  feel  that  he  owes  it  to  you  to  make  goocl/ 
This  is  a  strong  influence  on  conduct, — too  strong  to  Tbe 
used  constantly.  It  may  easily  become  burdensome  to 
ordinary  mortals,  who  generally  want  more  freedom 
from  the  promptings  of  conscience.  The  point  is  to 
use  it  only  in  special  cases,  and  thus  get  its  good  effect 
both  in  results  obtained  and  on  the  man's  character. 
When  you  do  use  it,  do  so  quite  naturally  and  easily 
without  too  much  fuss  or  talking,  and  certainly  without 
formally  "putting  him  on  his  honor."  There  should  be 
no  apparent  question  of  your  confidence  being  justified, 
— it  is  so  sure  that  you  do  not  have  to  talk  about  it. 
Here  is  an  illustration:  I  found  in  my  command  at 
Camp  Grant  a  husky  soldier  who  was  a  prisoner  serving 
a  three  months'  sentence,  and  considered  a  surly  in- 
subordinate brute  who  would  never  be  disciplined. 
Soon  thereafter  his  major  brought  him  to  me  with  a 
most  unusual  request  for  authority  to  let  the  man  go  to 
Chicago  to  be  with  his  wife  during  a  serious  operation. 
The  man  stated  his  case, — too  proud  and  obstinate  to 
ask  any  favors.  I  discovered  that  he  felt  that  his  first 
punishment  had  been  a  real  injustice,  and  that  he  had 
thereafter  been  so  sore  at  heart  as  wilfully  to  defy 


112  MILITARY  MANPOWER 

authority.  I  asked  how  long  he  would  need  to  be  in 
Chicago, — he  did  not  know.  I  took  the  chance  and 
authorized  the  major  to  let  him  go  in  perfect  freedom 
and  stay  as  long  as  he  found  necessary.  The  man  was 
back  long  before  we  expected  him,  and  in  a  new  frame 
of  mind.  He  soon  had  the  remainder  of  his  sentence 
remitted  for  good  behavior,  and  before  we  left  for 
France  he  had  become  a  non-commissioned  officer  and 
one  of  the  best  subordinate  leaders  for  arousing  loyal 
service.  Another  good  citizen  made, — or  at  least  saved 
from  the  hell  he  was  driving  into!  If  he  survived  the 
war  he  is  to-day  proud  of  the  service  he  once  hated  for 
its  injustice. 

145.  Take  Time  to  Hear  Men.  JjThe  leader  must 
have  time  to  listen  to  his  men.  He  must  not  be  too 
busy  to  take  up  this  matter  or  that  which  any  one  of 
them  may  properly  bring  to  him  for  decision./  It 
is  easy  to  look  important  and  say,  "I  haven't  got  time," 
but  each  time  he  does  it  he  drives  one  more  nail  in  the 
coffin  of  the  team  spirit  whose  We  he  should  really  be 
cherishing.  The  chances  are  that  he  declines  the  in- 
terview because  he  fears  that  he  does  not  know  the 
answer.  But  it  is,  far  better  to  take  that  chance,  make 
the  man  feel  that  he  was  right  in  coming  to  you,  and 
listen  to  his  proposition  even  if  in  the  end  you  have  to 
admit  that  you  do  not  know.  You  must  "have  time," 
if  you  want  the  loyal  cooperation  of  your  subordinates. 
I  know  an  officer  who  took  charge  of  an  office,  and 
straightened  out  a  tangled  organization  in  Paris,  and 


THE  PRINCIPLES  OF   LEADERSHIP  113 

the  first  thing  he  did  was  to  tack  outside  his  door, 
"I  have  got  time  to  hear  you."  It  is  much  harder  to 
get  your  subordinates  to  give  you  the  frank  timely  ex- 
pressions you  need,  than  it  is  to  avoid  being  bothered 
by  too  many  of  them.  The  busiest  leader  can  and 
should  so  arrange  his  affairs  that  every  subordinate 
may  know  that  he  may  personally  see  the  chief  if  the 
occasion  warrants.  In  the  midst  of  all  the  cares  of 
building  the  Panama  Canal,  General  Goethals  still 
set  aside  one  morning  each  week  for  his  men,  and  among 
all  those  thousands  of  employees  every  Jamaican  and 
Hottentot  had  the  comfort  during  the  week  of  knowing 
he  could  see  the  big  boss  in  person  on  Sunday.  His 
gang  boss  also  knew  that  the  Hottentot  could  go  to  see 
the  general,  which  had  a  salutary  effect  on  his  methods, 
— so  in  the  end  not  so  many  actually  went  after  all. 
Let  every  one  know  that  any  one  having  troubles  is  to 
bring  them  direct  to  you  and  the  troubles  will  rapidly 
diminish,  and  your  time  be  well  repaid  in  added 
organization  efficiency. 

146.  Promotion.  Ambition  for  advancement  is  a 
human  instinct  to  be  considered  by  the  leader  both  in 
connection  with  his  own  career  and  in  handling  his 
subordinates.  Every  one  should  feel  that  he  has  full 
opportunity  to  progress  as  far  as  his  ability  warrants. 
But  subordinates  must  be  made  to  realize  that  selfish 
ambition  cannot  win,  that  it  is  only  by  playing  for  the 
team  and  working  for  the  best  interests  of  the  whole 
outfit  that  one  can  win  his  superior's  recommendation 


114  MILITARY  MANPOWER 

for  promotion.  Unselfish  ambition  thus  improves  both 
the  work  of  the  team  and  the  man's  chances  for  pro- 
motion. 

147.  An  earned  promotion  should  never  be  denied 
a  man  when  his  opportunity  does  come,  simply  because 
his  superior  feels  that  he  cannot  spare  this  man's  ser- 
vices.    As  unjust  as  that  is,  it  is  often  done,  and  always 
to  the  cost  of  the  group  spirit.     In  reality  there  are  very 
few    men    who    cannot    be    replaced, — and    often    to 
surprising  advantage.     No  matter  how  much  trouble 
is  necessary  to  train  the  man's  replacement  it  is  far 
better  to  let  him  go  than  it  is  to  keep  him  and  thus  lower 
the  morale  of  all  by  showing  that  your  selfishness  or 
laziness  is  going  to  stand  in  the  way  of  a  deserved 
promotion. 

148.  Knowing  the  Purpose.    Human  nature  de- 
mands that  before  men  can  put  their  best   efforts  into 
work  they  must  know  the  object  of  it.     Purpose  is  the 
guiding  motive  in  all  life;  and  we  are  so  made  that  we 
seek  for  the  purpose  in  all  our  efforts,  and  finding  it  and 
believing  in  it,  we  naturally  give  it  our  best  endeavors. 
To  win  this  added  influence  the  leader  makes  sure  that 
each  man  understands  whatever  part  he  directs  him  to 
play,  its  object  and  importance  in  the  general  plan, 
and  what  the  plan  is.     Then  as  the  man  works  he  has 
a  mental  picture  of  the  plan,  sees  his  part  fitting  into  it, 
and  his  constructive  instincts  keep  h:m  interested  in 
making  his  part  perfect.    Meanwhile  the  necessity  of 
thus  clearly  defining  the  object  of  the  plan  to  the  man 
reacts  advantageously  on  the  leader.     It  requires  him  to 


THE  PRINCIPLES  OF  LEADERSHIP  115 

have  a  clear  conception  of  this  object,  and  thus  enables 
him  to  hew  truer  to  the  line  in  carrying  it  on. 

In  undertaking  any  new  plan  or  policy,  the  one 
most  efficient  thing  to  do  is  to  assemble  the  whole  group 
of  men  concerned  and  explain  to  them  what  you  and 
they  together  are  going  to  try  to  do;  how  they  are  or- 
ganized for  it,  and  the  part  each  is  to  take;  and  finally 
give  them  such  a  picture  of  the  whole  as  may  become 
an  inspiration,  or  at  least  appeal  to  their  reason. 

149.  Joy  of  Doing  Work  Well.  Whatever  a  man 
is  doing  in  an  agreeable  and  interested  frame  of  mind, 
it  is  natural  for  him  to  try  for  perfection  and  to  take 
pleasure  from  attaining  it.  You  can  see  this  reflected 
in  the  faces  of  the  men  at  work  under  a  skillful  drill 
master.  These  joys  from  fine  execution  are  the  result 
of  a  natural  instinct,  and  form  one  of  the  best  means 
of  getting  good  results  if  you  but  bring  them  into  play. 
When  you  see  men  taking  no  interest  in  their  work, 
even  purposely  doing  poor  work,  you  may  be  sure  that 
something  is  wrong  which  needs  attention.  Pro- 
prietorship and  self-expression  are  other  allied  instincts 
equally  important  in  this  connection.  To  get  the  full 
benefit  of  the  man's  instinct  to  do  his  part  well,  he 
should  be  made  to  feel  that  he  has  a  personal  interest 
in  the  whole  plan;  that  in  doing  his  part  he  is  using  his 
own  skill  and  resourcefulness;  and  where  occasion 
warrants,  that  his  arms  or  tools  are  his  personal  prop- 
erty. So  the  leader  watches  for  the  chance,  and  drops 
a  remark  to  show  that  he  appreciates  all  this  as  he 
commends  the  man's  accomplishment, — and  all  the 


116  MILITARY  MANPOWER 

better  if  others  overhear  the  remark.  He  is  careful 
to  speak  of  it  as  the  man's  work,  to  praise  the  way  he 
handled  it,  and  to  commend  the  condition  of  his  arms 
or  tools.  In  this  way  he  encourages  in  every  one  the 
feeling  that  each  may  show  individuality  in  his  work  and 
will  get  full  credit  according  to  its  excellence. 

150.  These  same  constructive  instincts  in  the  men 
have  another  meaning  for  their  leader     They  cause  the 
men  to  resent  finding  themselves  doing  useless  work, 
wasting  energy  and  even  approaching  failure  as  a  result 
of  the  leader's  poor  judgment,  hesitation  in  making 
decisions,  or  blundering  through  lack  of  forethought. 
This  makes  you  see  the  necessity  for  knowing  your 
job,   and  carefully  preparing  yourself  to  handle  its 
details. 

151.  Joy   in    Accomplishment.     Akin   to   man's 
natural  delight  in  .doing  things  well  is  the  pleasure  he 
gets  from  seeing  things  grow  toward  completion.     We 
all  know  people  who  are  more  or  less  ruled  by  this 
passion.     They  "get  their  teeth  set"  in  doing  some- 
thing, and  can  be  interested  in  nothing  else  until  they 
have  finished  it.     This  instinct  is  always  being  appealed 
to  by  leaders  who  understand  it.    They  first  make  the 
completion  of  a  task  a  definite  object  to  be  accomplished 
and  then  take  pains  to  point  out  to  the  men  from  time  to 
time  how  good  progress  is  being  made  toward  its  attain- 
ment.    Compare  the  efficiency  of  a  drill  run  on  this 
basis  with  that  of  the  apparently  objectless  one  which 
simply  fills  in  the  time. 

Every  one  is  supposed  to  have  some  underlying  pur- 


THE  PRINCIPLES  OF  LEADERSHIP  117 

pose,  some  goal  in  life.  As  Bishop  Brent  says,  even  the 
loafer  may  be  supposed  to  have  the  purpose  to  live  as 
easily  as  possible.  The  attainment  of  one's  purpose 
spurs  him  on  to  renewed  endeavor,  and  supplies  a  con- 
tinuing interest  to  his  daily  work.  For  we  do  not  have 
to  await  the  satisfaction  of  having  attained  this  distant 
goal.  We  get  renewed  pleasure  en  route  from  the 
successful  completion  of  each  of  the  small  steps  that 
bring  us  a  bit  nearer  the  goal,  and  count  that  day  good 
in  which  we  have  taken  one.  So  the  leader  increases 
the  efficiency  of  his  men  by  having  a  definite  purpose  in 
what  he  requires  them  to  do,  by  letting  them  know 
what  it  is,  and  by  showing  them  wherein  they  are  mak- 
ing progress  toward  its  attainment. 

152.  Repetition.  We  have  seen  that  repetition  is 
used  to  fix  desired  habits.  It  has  another  use  for  the 
leader  equally  valuable, — in  the  attainment  of  perfec- 
tion. We  want  perfection  at  drill  for  its  psychologic 
effects;  and  in  the  man's  use  of  his  arms  for  material 
effects.  So  it  is  of  value  to  realize  that  repetition  is 
more  potent  for  acquiring  perfection  than  is  great 
effort,  and  the  men  themselves  should  know  this.  A 
little  of  the  same  thing  repeated  at  different  times  is  the 
surest  way  to  learn  it  thoroughly.  The  doing  of  dif- 
ficult things  with  ease  and  precision  is  more  the  result 
of  doing  them  over  and  over  on  different  occasions, 
than  of  putting  forth  great  efforts  at  any  one  time. 
This  has  direct  application  in  drills  and  in  making 
schedules.  It  is  invaluable  in  learning  to  shoot; — lack 
of  time  prevents  taking  full  advantage  of  it,  yet  much 


118  MILITARY  MANPOWER 

may  be  done  by  spreading  the  preliminary  exercises 
over  all  the  time  available. 

153.  Competition.  The  instinct  of  rivalry  or  com- 
petition, which  makes  a  man  strive  to  excel  among  his 
companions,  is  another  of  the  leader's  instruments. 
This  is  so  powerful  a  motive  that  it  has  to  be  used  with 
judgment.  Once  launched  in  a  real  contest  most  men 
are  likely  to  sacrifice  anything  to  win.  I  remember 
discovering  one  of  my  young  soldiers  cheating  in  calling 
the  hits  at  the  target  he  was  marking.  He  was  per- 
fectly frank  in  admitting  to  me  that  he  had  called  many 
hits  improperly;  and  when  I  asked  him  why,  he  in- 
genuously replied,  "I  heard  the  captain  say  we  must 
beat  H  troop,  and  I  was  trying  to  help."  He  was  so 
honest  that  I  had  to  admit  that  the  fault  was  half  mine, 
and  did  not  punish  him.  As  a  general  rule  what  we 
want  from  our  men  is  a  high  average  of  performance 
which  may  be  maintained  without  any  strain  or  im- 
pairment of  their  powers;  so 'you  must  judge  the  case 
fairly  before  introducing  the  spirit  of  contest.  You 
must  not  be  using  it  eternally  to  keep  the  men  on  the 
jump,  but  only  on  occasions  that  are  worth  while. 
There  are  moderate  things  for  which  it  may  be  used 
regularly  to  stimulate  effort,  as  in  making  the  best 
record  for  punctuality,  etc.  But  you  would  not  expect 
to  keep  a  man  always  on  his  toes,  and  so  you  use 
judgment  to  keep  the  spirit  fresh  for  use  on  real 
occasions. 

164.  Team  Competitions.  Competition  between 
teams  engaged  in  like  undertakings  will  not  only  increase 


THE  PRINCIPLES  OF  LEADERSHIP  119 

individual  excellence,  but  its  great  advantage  is  that  it 
brings  the  individuals  of  each  team  into  close  coopera- 
tion in  order  that  their  team  may  win,  and  thus  give 
them  a  better  comprehension  of  the  spirit  of  teamwork. 
As  every  leader  is  constantly  trying  to  develop  his 
teamwork,  these  rivalries  are  very  common.  But 
where  your  team  competes  with  another  in  the  same 
organization  it  must  play  fair  as  a  member  of  the 
larger  team.  The  same  rules  of  cooperation  and  loyalty 
apply  to  the  conduct  of  your  team  here,  as  to  the 
individual  members  of  your  own  team  at  home.  You 
may  not  do  anything  for  your  team  which  injures  the 
other,  or  lowers  it  in  the  estimation  of  your  men. 
Building  up  infantry  spirit  by  slurs  at  the  artillery, 
and  artillery  spirit  at  the  expense  of  the  infantry,  is 
found  to  be  expensive  business  when  war  links  them 
together  into  the  same  team  and  each  finds  himself 
dependent  for  success  in  battle  on  the  cooperation  of 
the  other.  "Sure  he's  good,  but  we  can  beat  him," 
is  the  true  mental  attitude  for  contests  within  an 
organization. 

155.  Surplus  Spirit.  There  are  now  and  then 
men  of  so  much  virility  of  body  and  spirit  that  they  are 
unable  to  expend  enough  of  it  on  the  ordinary  day's 
duties, — and  the  surplus  often  gets  them  into  trouble. 
A  good  leader  tries  to  accommodate  them  with  enough 
hard  work  and  play  to  keep  them  comfortably  steady; 
while  the  poor  leader,  blind  to  human  nature,  punishes 
their  derelictions  without  effort  at  remedy,  and  thus 
ends  in  giving  them  a  reputation  for  deviltry,  and  even 


120  MILITARY  MANPOWER 

for  worthlessness.  Yet  these  very  men  were  capable 
of  tremendous  exertions  for  good  had  they  been  pro- 
perly directed.  War  always  astonishes  the  community 
by  bringing  such  cases  of  reputed  worthlessness  to 
the  fore  in  often  brilliant  performance.  They  find  in 
the  demands  of  war  enough  to  engage  all  their  surplus 
energies;  and  because  of  this  very  store  of  surplus 
energy  they  are  able  to  outdo  their  fellows.  Properly 
led,  they  may  do  as  well  in  peace.  Giving  a  man  work 
to  "keep  him  out  of  trouble"  is  a  wise  saying,  and  well 
worth  remembering  when  you  find  some  man  looking 
for  trouble.  It  is  a  well  known  trick  in  the  army  to 
call  up  some  wild  lad  who  is  always  getting  into  mischief, 
arouse  his  pride  by  finding  some  element  of  his  per- 
sonality to  praise  and  rely  on,  and  then  put  him  in 
charge  of  a  squad  of  men  on  some  task,  or  even  appoint 
him  a  corporal.  Nine  times  out  of  ten  he  will  react 
to  this  responsibility  by  giving  unusual  service.  The 
difficulty  is  to  find  opportunity  to  promote  a  seemingly 
bad  man  without  establishing  an  unfortunate  standard 
of  performance  for  winning  promotion.  Such  are  the 
interesting  things  in  leadership. 

*  If  any  reader,  in  closing  this  chapter,  has  asked  why  I  failed  to 
discuss  such  and  such  as  most  important  to  leadership — I  am  glad. 
For  in  thus  forming  his  own  opinion  as  to  one  of  its  important 
elements,  he  is  taking  a  real  step  toward  qualifying  in  leadership. 

L.  C.  A. 


CHAPTER  III 

PSYCHOLOGICAL   ELEMENTS   OF   MILITARY  TRAINING 

156.  The  object   of  this   chapter  is   to  point   out 
certain  elements  of  instruction  and  drill,  which  bear 
directly  on  the  development  in  the  soldier  of  those 
psychological  qualities  which  every  one  admits  are  far 
more  than  half  the  battle.     Realizing  the  importance 
of  these  qualities,  knowing  what  they  are  and  how 
to  get  them,  instructors  should  be  able  to  conduct 
training  with  a  degree  of  efficiency  which  will  rapidly 
make  soldiers  of  our  intelligent  civilians  when  called 
to  war,  nor  cause  them  chagrin  through  wasted  time  and 
energy. 

157.  The    General    Object    of    Training.    The 
object  of  all  military  training  is  to  fit  officers  and  men 
to  play  their  individual  parts  as  leaders  and  members 
of  their  respective  teams;  and  so  to  fit  them  as  to 
be  able  to  deliver  their  maximum  manpower  at  the 
time  and  place  of  battle.     We  all  know  this;  the  point 
is  for  us  to  realize  what  it  means  specifically  and  prac- 
tically to  us  in  the  daily  conduct  of  training.     Then 
we  may  hope  to  conduct  it  intelligently.     If  one  could 
gather  up  and  employ  all  the  time  and  energy,  mental, 
physical   and  nervous, — all  the   manpower — that    we 
have  wasted  in  objectless  time-serving  drills,  he  could 

121 


122  MILITARY '  MANPOWER 

build  Panama  Canals  all  over  the  continent!  Before 
we  ever  go  to  war  again  it  should  be  made  a  military 
crime  for  a  man  to  appear  before  his  men  as  an  instruc- 
tor without  a  clear  conception  of  what  he  is  to  accom- 
plish in  that  particular  drill  period  and  a  definite  plan 
as  to  how  he  is  to  accomplish  it. 

168.  The  Specific  Object.  The  specific  object  of 
training  is  twofold  and  every  step  in  training  has  in 
view  both  these  phases  of  its  specific  object,  and  both 
must  be  considered  by  the  instructor.  In  its  first 
phase  the  object  is  to  turn  out  a  soldier  who  is  physically 
and  mentally  fit,  instructed  in  the  use  of  his  arms  and 
knowing  how  to  do  the  various  things  that  service  will 
require  of  him;  and  in  the  second  it  is  to  instill  into  this 
man  the  psychological  qualities  which  active  service 
requires. 

159.  To   accomplish   the   first   requirement   should 
not  be  difficult,  taken  in  a  common  sense  way.     There 
is  no  great  mystery  about  soldiering.     There  is  nothing 
a  soldier  has  to  learn  how  to  do  that  is  as  difficult  to  do 
or  as  hard  to  learn  as  many  things  required  of  men  in 
civil  life,  as  in  mechanics  and  in  sports.     Any  boy 
will  undertake  to  learn  how  to  hit  a  pitched  baseball  or 
to  kick  a  football  goal  in  a  cross  wind.     It  is  easier  to 
hit  an  enemy  with  a  rifle  bullet  at  600  yards. 

160.  We  only  ask  that  our  military  instructor  use 
the  same  common  sense  methods,  put  tlie  same  human 
interest  into  instructing  the  recruit  how  to  do  each  of 

that  he  would  use  if,  as  a  baseball  coach, 
had  to  train  a  beginner  to  play  on  his  team 


PSYCHOLOGICAL  ELEMENTS  123 

that  season,  because  this  new  man  was  the  only  avail- 
able material.  He  would  not  march  this  man  stiffly  up 
to  the  home  plate,  have  him  execute  right  face  and 
stand  with  eyes  to  the  front,  chin  in  and  shoulders 
back,  while  he  explained  to  him  at  length  how  to  hit  a 
pitched  ball;  then  pitch  a  swift  one  and  yell,  "Wake  up, 

what  the  h are  you  doing !"  because  he  didn't  hit  it. 

Yet  we  constantly  see  instructors  teaching  military 
recruits  by  just  such  stupid  methods, — and  sagely 
talking  about  how  it  takes  two  years  to  train  a  soldier. 
They  could  not  do  it  in  ten. 

161.  Instruction  Differentiated  from  Drill.  The 
coach  who  was  that  absurd  would  be  instantly  dis- 
charged by  intelligent  management,  and  some  day 
military  instructors  will  be.  The  instructor  must 
get  out  of  his  mind  the  idea  that  when  giving  instruction 
he  is  conducting  a  drill, — drill  is  an  absolutely  different 
proposition,  for  a  distinctly  different  purpose,  hence 
conducted  in  a  different  spirit  and  by  different  methods. 
In  instruction  we  are  teaching  the  awkward  beginner 
how  to  do  the  different  things  he  must  learn,  and  as 
the  coach  would  use  natural  language  and  methods, 
would  encourage  and  jolly  him  along,  get  him  to  swing 
his  bat  and  learn  its  balance,  toss  him  many  slow  balls 
and  correct  his  form  in  striking;  so  the  military  instruc- 
tor should  handle  his  men  when  teaching  them  how  to 
play  their  individual  parts  in  the  various  phases  of  the 
military  game.  Let  each  man  try  the  thing  at  will, 
not  at  command,  freely  look  at  himself,  at  the  instructor 
whom  he  is  trying  to  imitate,  and  at  his  fellows  whose 


124  MILITARY  MANPOWER 

efforts  may  well  offer  him  suggestions  for  improve- 
ment. And  all  this  time  the  instructor  should  make 
corrections  and  suggestions,  encourage  the  men,  and 
keep  them  mentally  alert  and  cheerful.  It  is  astonish- 
ing how  quickly,  taken  in  this  way,  the  men  will  perfect 
themselves  in  the  execution  of  any  one  of  the  move- 
ments, in  reality  very  simple,  required  for  drill,  manual 
of  arms,  physical  training,  bayonet  or  bomb  work, 
etc.,  etc.  That  is  a  sketchy  picture  of  the  spirit  for  the 
conduct  of  Instruction.  Each  drill  master  finds  keen 
interest  in  using  his  own  ingenuity  and  personality  to 
perfect  his  own  methods  for  thus  teaching  his  men  how 
to  do  things,  and  at  the  same  time  laying  psychological 
foundations  on  which  to  make  these  men  worthy 
members  of  his  team. 

162.  Having  thus  taught  his  men  how  to  execute  as 
individuals  any  one  movement,  for  example  "right 
face,"  the  instructor  now  leads  them  into  a  drill  in  this 
movement,  in  which  they  first  attempt  its  execution 
together  as  a  squad.  The  whole  atmosphere  changes. 
It  becomes  your  object  now  to  instill  the  soldierly  spirit, 
to  develop  the  attributes  of  the  soldier,  all  that  is 
implied  by  discipline,  instant  exact  obedience,  the 
cohesion  of  all  these  men  working  exactly  together  as 
one  unit  in  response  to  the  chief,  mental  alertness,  and 
accurate  control  of  the  body  in  response  to  the  leader's 
will.  You  now  gradually  become  the  implacable  drill 
master,  intolerant  of  the  slightest  inattention,  demand- 
ing exact  execution,  and  perfection  in  the  slightest 
detail.  Your  commands  become  sharp,  your  correc- 


PSYCHOLOGICAL  ELEMENTS  125 

tions  pointed,  and  directed  always  to  the  individual 
at  fault.  This  is  Drill, — a  matter  to  be  thoroughly 
understood  if  you  aspire  to  be  a  drill  master,  and  never 
to  be  confused,  nor  attempted  simultaneously,  with 
Instruction.  That  is  a  "great  failing  of  many  drill 
masters  who  have  never  recognized  this  distinction. 
If  you  will  keep  this  distinction  clear  in  your  minds,  and 
realize  the  differences  both  in  object  and  in  atmosphere, 
you  will  have  taken  the  longest  step  toward  becoming 
good  instructors. 

163.  Training  Must  Build  the  Soldier's  Charac- 
ter.    The  second  phase  of  the  Specific  object  of  train- 
ing,— the  development  of  the  requisite  psychological 
qualities — furnishes  the  human  interest  that  makes  the 
good  drill  master  forget  the  passage  of  time  and  hear 
the  "bugle"  with  regret.     We  have  seen  that  this  object 
is  specifically : — to  develop  leadership  in  those  who  are 
to  lead;  to  fix  habits;  and  to  build  up  in  all  the  spirit  of 
discipline,  morale,  teamwork,  loyal  initiative,  resource- 
fulness,  obedience,   and   courageous  characters.     Let 
every  instructor  feel  his  personal   responsibility  for 
establishing  these  qualities  in  his  men,  and  for  doing 
nothing  to  detract  from  them,  and  he  will  take  himself 
seriously  to  his  work.     You  already  understand  the 
meanings  of  these  qualities,   and  their  purpose.     It 
remains  to  learn  how  they  are  developed  in  training; 
how  one  or  another,  or  all,  form  the  important  psycho- 
logical object  which  you  must  keep  in  mind  in  each 
step  of  your  work  at  drill  or  instruction. 

164.  Good  Drill  Masters.    Modern  war,  calling  the 


126  MILITARY  MANPOWER 

whole  nation  suddenly  to  arms,  demands  of  the  regular 
establishment  that  all  its  personnel  be  highly  qualified 
as  instructors  in  order  to  train  its  raw  levies  efficiently 
and  quickly.  How  to  conduct  training  becomes  there- 
fore an  important  part  of  the  student's  instruction. 
And  here,  as  in  the  practice  of  leadership,  each  instruc- 
tor uses  words  and  methods  determined  by  his  own 
personality,  but  all  based  on  the  same  principles.  The 
point  is  as  before,  to  absorb  the  principles  and  then  use 
your  own  ingenuity  to  put  them  into  effect. 

165.  The  first  essential  is  to  realize  that  every  single 
step  in  every  form  of  military  training  has  its  own 
specific  dual  object, — in  technique  and  in  psychological 
effect.  The  next  essential  is  to  define  clearly  this 
object  in  each  particular  case,  and  then  to  keep  the 
object  clear  in  mind  as  you  plan  and  as  you  conduct 
this  particular  work.  Having  the  object  clearly  be- 
fore you,  you  may  determine  at  every  point  of  the  work 
whether  you  are  doing  the  right  thing  or  not.  Does  it 
help  toward  attaining  the  object?  That  is  the  deter- 
mining consideration  in  each  case.  You  must  therefore 
prepare  for  each  exercise,  not  only  by  perfecting  your- 
self in  the  niceties  of  its  technique  but  by  clearly  defin- 
ing what  this  particular  exercise  is  designed  to  accom- 
plish. Then  you  may  make  it  keen,  interesting,  and  a 
valuable  experience  for  the  men.  And  you  will  double 
the  result  if  you  explain  this  object  to  the  men,  and 
enlist  their  interest  and  intelligence  in  its  perfect  accom- 
plishment. 

Failure  in  the  above  essential  has  been  a  pronounced 


PSYCHOLOGICAL  ELEMENTS  127 

characteristic  of  ordinary  drill  masters.  The  com- 
monest thing  heard  on  the  old  time  drill  field  was  the 
sergeant  shouting  *  'What  the  h —  are  you  doing ! '  *  Nine 
times  out  of  ten  he  did  not  know  himself  what  he  was 
doing — and  that  explained  the  seeming  stupidity  of  his 
men.  Lacking  an  appreciation  of  this  finer  side  of 
training  we  have  allowed  so-called  drill  masters  to  pound 
away  hour  after  hour  on  close  order  drills,  our  most 
delicate  instrument  of  training;  and  to  pound  so 
ignorantly  and  clumsily  that  they  have  done  far  more 
damage  than  good  to  the  high  morale  they  were  sup- 
posed to  be  developing. 

166.  Another  essential  is  to  keep  in  mind  the  fact 
that  modern  war  demands  the  development  of  the 
soldier's  loyal  individual  initiative.     This  requires  that 
throughout  all  his  training  you  are  to  develop  luVpowers 
to  judge  conditions  and  arrive  at  a  decision,  his  nerve 
to  act  on  this  decision,  and  his  willingness  to  take  the 
responsibility  for  his  action.     The  above  essentials, 
coupled  with  your  own  mental  and  physical  alertness 
and  a  perfection  in  the  niceties  of  the  technique  of  what 
you  are  teaching,  combine  to  form  the  sure  foundation 
for  becoming  a  good  drill  master. 

167.  The  Psychology  of  Battle.     Since  the  general 
object  of  all  training  is  to  fit  us  for  the  test  of  battle, 
the  next  essential  is  to  have  a  mental  conception  of  the 
psychological  conditions  we  may  expect  to  meet  on  the 
battle  field.     The  psychology  of  battle  is  a  study  in 
itself.     Enough  here  to  sketch  roughly  these  conditions, 
and  bring  out  a  few  salient  facts. 


128  MILITARY  MANPOWER 

Man,  an  individual,  is  largely  controlled  by  his  emo- 
tions— they  color  his  judgment  in  the  calmest  moments, 
in  excitement  he  is  likely  to  become  their  creature. 
Men  in  a  crowd  are  swayed  by  impulses  often  so  un- 
reasonable as  to  seem  absurd  and  impossible  to  any  one 
of  these  same  men  standing  alone.  This  is  illustrated 
time  and  again  by  the  unreasoning,  often  ridiculous, 
conduct  of  mobs. 

The  strongest  instinct  in  man,  handed  down  from 
primal  times,  is  self-preservation.  When  he  feels  that 
life  is  threatened,  fear  obtrudes.  If  this  fear  possesses 
his  being,  his  faculties  are  paralyzed,  his  eye  distends 
till  vision  is  obscured,  breathing  is  spasmodic,  muscles 
tremble  and  physical  exhaustion  impends;  he  neither 
hears  nor  reasons.  At  any  moment  he  may  blindly 
abandon  all  previous  standards  of  conduct,  and,  for- 
getful of  honor  and  duty,  regard  only  his  safety.  Habits 
and  soldierly  character  formed  in  training  will  enable 
the  trained  soldier  to  avoid  this. 

In  a  command  of  soldiers  on  the  battle  field,  you 
have  a  group  subjected  to  the  strongest  emotions,  the 
ideal  condition  for  developing  a  mob.  They  are  beyond 
belief  sensitive  to  emotions.  Impulses  sweep  through 
them  as  easily  as  sound  waves  through  air.  If  this 
condition  be  allowed  to  grow,  some  trivial  thing  may 
start  a  panic  that  will  sweep  all  before  it.  This  is  the 
battle  nightmare  of  experienced  generals,  especially  in 
dealing  with  raw  troops.  Whole  commands  have  been 
swept  away  in  panic  over  the  shadow  of  nothing. 
These  instances  are  rarely  reported,  and  more  rarely 


PSYCHOLOGICAL  ELEMENTS  129 

recorded  in  history.  They  call  for  cool  leadership,  for 
officers  who  feel  the  pulse  of  their  men,  who  know  their 
very  souls,  and  have  learned  how  to  steady  and  control 
men.  Themselves  appearing  nonchalant,  they  are 
constantly  watchful  to  prevent  the  strain  from  reaching 
the  breaking  point.  They  themselves,  by  suggesting 
hopeful  thoughts  as  to  the  conditions  of  the  battle,  by 
one  means  or  another,  are  the  author  of  the  impulses 
that  sway  the  men,  and  thus  by  the  aid  of  training  and 
discipline,  they  bring  them  through  the  crisis. 

Another  not  infrequent  battle  picture  is  the  individ- 
ual, gone  mad.  His  faculties  are  benumbed.  You 
have  known  him  as  a  fine  type  of  man  and  soldier,  and 
now  behold  him  acting  like  an  idiot.  There  is  no  control 
for  him  but  through  the  habit  of  obedience,  the  result  of 
rigid  training,  now  enforced  with  an  iron  hand. 

With  these  true  pictures  clearly  in  mind,  you  may  fit 
yourself  so  that  you  will  not  go  into  battle  unprepared  to 
meet  similar  conditions,  surprised  to  find  your  easy 
control  of  the  drill  field  gone  forever.  By  giving  thought, 
by  observation  and  self -training,  prepare  yourself  to  be 
controlled  and  resourceful  in  emergencies;  take  advantage 
of  every  opportunity  that  offers  even  mild  excitement, 
to  study  the  conduct  of  men,  and  above  all,  how  it  may 
be  controlled.  Whenever  working  with  experienced 
officers,  study  their  manner  and  expressions  for  points 
on  control.  Think  how  you  would  handle  each  situa- 
tion, till  your  mind  learns  to  respond  easily  to  the  call  of 
emergency. 

You  may  well  accept  the  cold  fact  that  fear  is  going 


130  MILITARY  MANPOWER 

to  be  present  upon  going  into  battle.  It  was  Marshal 
Ney  who  said,  "The  one  who  says  he  never  knew  fear  is 
a  compound  liar."  And  the  great  Turenne,  who  said  to 
himself  upon  entering  a  battle,  "You  tremble,  body. 
Well,  you  would  tremble  more  if  you  knew  where  I  am 
going  to  take  you."  Anticipate  this,  and  do  not  lend 
to  its  power  for  producing  paralysis  and  demoralization, 
the  potent  element  of  surprise.  Accept  the  fact,  and 
plan  to  meet  it  intelligently. 

168.  Courage  to  be  Developed.    We  find  our  personal 
application  of  the  above  conditions  in  the  fact  that 
courage  can  be  developed  to  a  degree;  and  must  be. 
It  is  the  essential  moral  quality  for  a  soldier,  and  thus 
becomes  a  prime  consideration  in  the  conduct  of  train- 
ing.    It  is  possible  only  with  a  good  physique,  good 
bodily  health,  and  confidence  in  self,  in  comrades,  and 
in  leaders.     This  clearly  points  the  way  for  the  train- 
ing to  be  given : — development  of  physique,  till  the  man 
is  "hard  as  iron,"  proud  and  confident  of  his  power  to 
endure  hardships;  practice  in  the  use  of  arms  and  in 
military  exercises,  till  he  is  at  ease  and  sure  of  himself 
in  any  situation;  such  use  of  teamwork  as  to  make  him 
sure  of  his  comrades  and  his  leader;  and  all  the  time, 
such  treatment  as  an  individual  as  to  assure  his  per- 
sonal pride  and  character. 

169.  Forming  Habits.    To  form  habits  takes  time 
and  many  repetitions,  and  requires  that  we  revert  to 
these   repetitions   continuously   throughout   training. 
Hence  the  need  for  long  training,  and  for  insisting  on 
perfection  of  execution  in  each  of  these  drill  movements, 


PSYCHOLOGICAL  ELEMENTS  131 

to  make  the  habits  good.  Each  of  the  things  which  a 
soldier  will  have  to  do  in  battle,  he  must  do  over  and 
over  in  training,  because  as  he  has  done  them  in  train- 
ing, so  will  he  do  them  in  battle.  So  it  is  not  alone 
teaching  the  man  how  to  play  his  part  that  is  important; 
he  must  be  so  practiced  in  his  part  as  to  play  it  correctly 
by  habit.  This  is  particularly  true  of  close  order 
drill  whose  function  is  almost  entirely  psychological; 
— to  establish  in  the  man  the  feelings  of  the  solidarity 
and  cohesion  of  the  military  machine;  and  to  fix  his 
habits,  especially  the  habit  of  obedience.  Here  we 
train  their  bodies  and  minds  into  habits  of  a  common, 
exact,  unhesitating  obedience  to  the  will  of  their  leader, 
which  will  make  his  control  possible  in  the  stress  of 
battle.  The  fact  that  his  drills  are  fixing  habits,  good  or 
bad,  is  a  serious  consideration  for  the  instructor. 

170.  Practical    Suggestions.     From    analysis    of 
the  conduct  of  various  forms  of  drill  and  from  sugges- 
tions for  making  them  good,  you  may  learn  how  to 
make  yourselves  good  drill  masters.     We  do  not  pur- 
port to  cover  completely  the  field  of  training,  but  to 
show  how  by  applying  study  and  analysis  to  the  subject 
each  drill  master  may  evolve  for  himself  the  rules  and 
methods  by  which  he  may  make  his  work  good.     We 
also  give  something  of  the  spirit  of  the  different  forms  of 
drill,  and  suggest  ideas  for  the  drill  master  to  enlarge 
upon  in  his  talks  to  his  men  when  taking  up  each  drill 
subject,  for  the  purpose  of  arousing  their  interest  in  the 
work. 

171.  Instructing  a  New  Command.     Instruction  of 


132  MILITARY  MANPOWER 

individuals  should  always  be  given  in  small  groups. 
When  suitable  instructors  are  not  available,  as  in  or- 
ganizing a  new  company  in  war  time,  the  captain  must 
still  use  the  small  group  system,  and  train  the  instruc- 
tors each  day  in  the  work  they  are  to  do  next  day. 
These  instructors  will  be  naturally  his  new  non-commis- 
sioned officers,  and  they  have  got  to  be  developed  and 
trained  as  such,  to  learn  how  to  give  instruction,  how  to 
command,  and  how  to  lead.  He  forms  them  into  a 
squad  and  trains  them  exactly  as  he  wants  them  to 
conduct  the  training  of  their  men  in  the  same  work.  He 
will  have  each  one  in  turn  conduct  the  instruction  of 
the  others,  thus  giving  them  necessary  experience  and 
enabling  them  to  appear  with  confidence  before  their  men 
the  next  day.  This  is  an  excellent  system  of  establish- 
ing uniformity  of  instruction  in  any  command  and  for 
developing  the  ability  of  instructors,  but  must  include 
allowing  the  instructors  freedom  to  improve  on  methods 
for  the  sake  of  arousing  their  initiative.  By  close 
supervision  of  their  work,  the  officers  control  this 
initiative  to  insure  good  results. 

172.  In  training  N.  C.  O.'s  for  this,  he  would  give 
for  the  sake  of  example  especial  attention  to  personal 
bearing,  manner  of  making  explanations  and  giving 
instruction  generally,  tone  of  commands,  etc.  He 
would  explain  the  system  to  them,  that  they  were  to 
duplicate  next  day  the  instruction  he  now  gives  them, 
give  no  more  and  no  less,  and  that  his  drill  now  was  an 
example  for  them  to  follow.  He  would  have  different 
ones  in  turn  drill  the  others,  correcting,  ana  showing 


PSYCHOLOGICAL  ELEMENTS  133 

them  how  to  correct,  mistakes,  demonstrating  the  points 
for  emphasis,  those  most  likely  to  cause  trouble,  and 
how  to  remedy  them. 

These  N.C.O.'s  will  be  far  from  perfect  at  the  first 
drills.  But  training  leaders  is  necessary.  A  corporal 
cannot  learn  to  command  without  commanding,  and 
the  men,  realizing  that  all  are  beginners  with  them- 
selves, will  now  be  less  critical  than  later  when  they 
know  the  game  better.  These  N.  C.  O.'s  must  be 
trained  sometime. 

This  instruction  in  squads  should  be  given  under 
the  direct  supervision  of  their  respective  platoon  chiefs, 
who  should  therefore  be  present  at  the  captain's 
preliminary  training  of  the  N.  C.  O.'s.  This  makes  for 
company  unity  of  development,  and  observes  the  prin- 
ciple of  keeping  the  commander  in  charge  of  his  own 
unit's  training. 

173.  Supervising   Instruction   does   not   mean   tak- 
ing a  central  position  and  watching  things  generally. 
It  means  going  from  squad  to  squad;  giving  close  atten- 
tion to  its  work;  commenting  on  it;  and  even  drilling 
it  for  a  minute,  thus  showing  men  and  leader  a  standard 
of  performance,  meanwhile  taking  care  that  everything 
be  done  in  a  spirit  of  encouragement,  nothing  to  injure 
spirit,  or  the  corporal's  control  of  the  men. 

174.  Daily  Progress.     Instruction  should  cover  very 
little  new  ground  each  day,  but  cover  it  so  thor- 
oughly  as   not  to  require  "instruction"  again.     The 
instruction  in  each  new  movement  should  terminate 
in  a  drill  of  precision  in  the  same  movement.     Each 


134  MILITARY  MANPOWER 

day's  work  should  include  a  drill  in  precision  in  move- 
ments of  preceding  days,  so  none  will  be  forgotten. 
Each  day's  work  should  close  by  having  the  squads 
assembled  into  the  platoon,  and  the  day's  work  be 
tested  under  the  commands  of  the  platoon  chief  in  a 
brief  drill  of  precision  which  unifies  the  platoon  and 
keeps  it  in  the  hands  of  its  chief. 

Each  drill  movement  thus  learned  becomes  an  asset 
for  all  future  drills.  It  is  surprising  how  few  are  the 
fundamental  movements  which  learned  thus  thoroughly 
admit  rapid  progress  thereafter.  The  drill  book  looks 
endless,  but  taken  in  this  way  can  be  learned  rapidly, 
the  platoon  and  company  always  putting  up  good  drill. 

175.  Increasing  Efficiency.  The  daily  schedule  of 
instruction,  showing  specific  paragraphs  for  each  day, 
should  be  posted  where  all  may  refer  to  it.  Those 
ambitious  for  advancement  may  then  go  to  the  drill 
more  or  less  prepared,  and  thus  be  fitting  themselves 
for  appointment  as  corporals  to  replace  those  who 
may  show  themselves  unfit.  As  the  captain  notes  these 
men,  he  should  try  them  out  in  his  N.  C.  O.  class;  and 
the  platoon  chief  should  call  them  out  from  time  to  time 
to  drill  their  squads. 

War  cannot  tolerate  inefficiency  in  any  grade.  The 
soldier  who  doesn't  know  his  job  will  be  killed  in  battle. 
That  might  not  be  so  deplorable,  but  his  presence  in  the 
group  endangers  his  comrades.  Training  must  be  so 
keen  as  to  make  men  realize  this.  The  motto  for  every 
drill  and  exercise  is — BE  so  SMAHT  AS  TO  GAIN  A 


PSYCHOLOGICAL  ELEMENTS  135 

SECOND   ON  THE)  ENEMY'S  TIME  OF   EXECUTION.      That 

second  will  save  your  life.  The  inefficient  must  be 
made  efficient,  or  eliminated.  Everybody  has  to  wake 
up.  Men  are  not  in  the  service  as  a  means  of  livelihood. 
They  are  there  to  save  the  nation.  Personal  considera- 
tions no  longer  have  weight.  You  are  good  on  your 
job,  or  out  you  go  is  the  only  rule.  And  this  period  of 
instruction  is  the  time  to  discover  the  inefficient  and 
act  accordingly.  Do  not  let  them  "mog"  along, 
dragging  down  the  general  average. 

176.  Tests.     In  many   subjects   of  instruction  the 
men  may  be  advantageously  given  tests  of  proficiency. 
There  is  nothing  better  to  develop  thorough  work. 
These  tests  should  be  brief,  frequent,  cover  one  pre- 
scribed phase  of  instruction,  and  in  some  way  the  men 
should  be  rewarded  according  to  results  attained. 

177.  Atmosphere.     In   giving   instruction   the   men 
must  be  kept  cheerful.     For  that  matter  most  of  the 
training  for  war  calls  for  cheerfulness.     Men  will  never 
learn  to  be  good  soldiers  in  an  atmosphere  of  gloom.     A 
military  leader  is  always  being  called  upon  to  radiate 
good  cheer.     Men  are  urged  to  sing  on  the  march, 
organizations  are  encouraged  to  have  their  own  songs, 
and  when  off  duty  to  get  together  socially  and  enjoy 
good  fellowship.     This  creates  and  cements  comrade- 
ship, makes  the  team  spirit  so  essential  to  conduct  in 
battle,  and  is  an  essential  phase  of  training.     In  the 
drills  of  precision  for  discipline  this  has  little  place. 
They  are  developing  sterner  qualities,  and  are  conducted 


136  MILITARY  MANPOWER 

in  an  atmosphere  of  force,  exactness,  decision,  sub- 
mergence of  the  individual  into  the  team,  absolute 
dominance  of  the  leader. 

In  giving  instruction  you  are  dealing  with  the  man 
as  an  individual.  The  object  is  to  develop  his  personal 
powers,  his  personal  ability  to  fight  an  antagonist,  his 
confidence  in  himself  and  his  own  use  of  his  weapons, 
in  his  own  physical  skill  and  mental  alertness.  He  must 
come  to  feel  that  he  personally  knows  the  game,  so  if  left 
without  leaders  in  the  exigencies  of  battle,  he  will  have 
the  assurance  to  carry  on  courageously.  You  cer- 
tainly cannot  develop  him  thus  in  a  spirit  of  gloom,  you 
growling  and  sarcastic,  he  sore  at  heart,  humiliated,  dis- 
couraged, sullen.  His  mind  must  be  bright  and  keen 
for  the  work,  the  result  of  a  cheerful,  hopeful  spirit, — 
and  you  must  so  give  instiuction  as  to  foster  this  spirit. 
That  may  seem  difficult,  but  if  you  yourself  know  the 
subject  matter  in  its  niceties,  are  sure  of  its  details  and 
wherein  lies  its  perfection,  you  can  make  progress  to- 
ward attaining  that  perfection  so  interesting  and  vital 
that  it  remains  only  for  you  to  be  a  constant  example  of 
cheerfulness  and  the-getting-it-right  spirit  for  the  men 
to  respond  in  kind. 

178.  Progressive  Steps.  In  learning  a  new  move- 
ment much  time  and  confusion  is  saved  by  using  the 
squad  to  illustrate  it  in  each  one  of  the  details  of  its 
mechanism  before  you  try  to  drill  it.  Long  preliminary 
explanations  are  useless.  Men  are  unfamiliar  with 
military  language,  few  have  imagination  enough  to 
get  any  mental  picture  of  what  you  are  describing.  Ex- 


PSYCHOLOGICAL  ELEMENTS  137 

plain  the  object  of  the  movement,  demonstrating  the 
formation  which  will  result  from  it;  then  explain  the 
details  of  the  first  step  taken  at  the  command  march. 
Have  all  the  men  take  each  his  proper  first  step  at  the 
command  and  then  stand  fast  in  that  position.  Now 
have  them  all  look  around  and  see  how  it  looks.  Make 
any  pertinent  remarks.  Then  order  the  next  step,  and 
again  hold  fast  and  look  it  over.  In  this  way  complete 
the  movement.  Repeat,  cutting  down  the  pauses  and 
comments  as  results  warrant.  Very  soon  they  will  have 
done  it  right.  Then  carry  clear  through  at  command. 
When  this  has  been  done  right  a  few  times,  change  the 
positions  of  the  men  and  start  all  over.  One  exercise 
thus  conducted  should  have  every  man  understanding 
that  movement  for  all  time.  He  will  not  thereafter 
have  to  stumble  through  it,  as  does  his  fellow  who  has 
not  been  properly  instructed.  Do  not  be  trapped  into 
constantly  leaving  seven  men  idle  while  you  teach  one 
stupid  man.  If  it  is  always  the  same  man  who  needs 
additional  instruction,  he  is  out  of  place  in  your  squad. 
Be  sure  you  are  just,  then  report  him  to  the  platoon 
chief  for  transfer. 

179.  Manual  of  Arms.  Do  not  give  too  much  time 
to  teaching  the  manual  of  arms  in  ranks.  Men  can 
pick  this  up  more  rapidly  and  accurately  out  of  ranks, 
working  by  themselves.  In  instruction,  you  must 
illustrate  each  movement  slowly  as  you  explain  it  one 
step  at  a  time,  and  as  you  do  it  have  the  men  follow 
at  will  into  the  same  positions.  Encourage  them  to 
practice  out  of  drill  hours.  Pick  the  man  who  does 


138  MILITARY  MANPOWER 

best  to  stand  in  front  as  a  leader  during  the  drill  in  the 
manual.  Tell  them  to  handle  the  weapon  always  by 
the  muscles  of  the  arm  alone.  That  the  man  should 
acquire  such  familiarity  with  its  balance  and  feel, 
that  he  can  snap  it  about  fearlessly  and  accurately,  nor 
need  to  dodge  lest  he  hit  himself  on  the  head.  Nothing 
will  control  the  cadence  like  counting  aloud  in  a  firm 
tone  in  the  same  cadence  as  the  quick  time  march. 

180.  Watch  the  Feet.  The  accuracy  of  execution  of 
any  movement  in  marching  depends  on  the  proper  move- 
ment of  the  men's  feet, .  and  the  success  of  many  of 
them  depends  on  the  command  of  execution  being 
given  with  the  proper  foot  in  the  proper  place.  A  good 
instructor  therefore  is  constantly  watching  the  men's 
feet  to  see  if  things  are  right.  He  can  often  spot  the 
trouble  there,  when  he  would  miss  it  by  watching  their 
faces.  To  illustrate :  a  lieutenant  was  trying  in  vain  to 
make  his  platoon  execute  properly  "platoon  right" 
from  a  halt,  and  it  was  always  ragged.  Had  he  watched 
the  men's  feet  at  the  command  "March,"  he  would 
have  seen  that,  where  every  man  should  step  off  simul- 
taneously in  the  right  oblique  with  a  full  thirty-inch 
step,  they  were  starting  with  one  or  two  hesitating  steps, 
which  of  course  broke  up  the  line.  Try  this  movement 
as  a  lesson  to  yourself  as  drill  instructor.  You  may 
have  to  face  in  the  same  direction  as  the  men  and  show 
them  how  to  step  off  freely  in  the  oblique  at  the  com- 
mand; you  may  even  have  to  require  them  to  take  the 
position  of  the  first  step  completed  without  marching, 
to  show  them  what  the  correct  step  should  be.  You 


PSYCHOLOGICAL  ELEMENTS  139 

will  have  interested  yourself  and  the  men  if  you  get  it 
correctly. 

More  drill  movements  are  made  ragged  by  the  men's 
failing  to  step  off  the  full  30  inches  in  the  first  step  at  the 
command  of  execution,  than  by  any  other  one  thing. 
In  your  first  drills  have  the  men  exaggerate  this,  watch 
it  constantly,  until  at  the  command  "March"  you  may 
always  see  the  left  legs  swinging  smartly  out  in  the 
full  step.  It  will  be  a  helpful  habit  when  it  comes  to 
company  movements  later. 

181.  Marching  from  a    Halt.     At  the  preparatory 
command  in  movements  from  a  halt,  the  men  sway 
their  bodies  slightly  forward  and  to  the  right  to  put  the 
center  of  gravity  of  their  bodies  over  the  right  leg  so 
it  may  lift  and  propel  the  body  forward  as  the  left  leg 
swings  smartly  its  full  thirty  inches  to  the  front  at  the 
command  "March ! "  This  preparation  for  the  command 
of  execution  makes  it  imperative,  if  you  want  a  smart 
movement,  that  the  command  of  execution  be  given 
after  a  uniform  length  of  pause,  and  not  held  indefinitely. 
If  it  has  been  necessary  to  inject  explanations  or  other 
remarks,  after  giving  the  preparatory  command,  do 
not  give  the  command  of  execution  then,  for  the  men 
will  have  settled  back  on  to  both  feet  while  listening, 
and  cannot  step  off  smartly  at  command.     Start  in 
over  again,  repeating  the  preliminary  command. 

182.  Imitation.     While   learning   a   new   movement 
the  men  should  not  be  held  strictly  to  the  position  of 
the  soldier,  but  rather  told  to  look  at  the  instructor, 
at  themselves  in  their  work,  even  at  their  comrades. 


140  MILITARY  MANPOWER 

In  learning  the  facings  a  man  needs  to  look  at  his  own 
feet  till  he  gets  the  hang  of  it.  So  in  most  movements 
he  learns  faster  by  seeing  what  is  going  on. 

The  beginner  learns  by  imitation  rather  than  expla- 
nation. It  is  often  possible  for  the  instructor  to  give 
the  command  or  count  for  each  motion  long  drawn  out, 
and  to  execute  it  himself  very  slowly,  requiring  the 
men  to  try  to  follow  him ;  watching  their  own  members 
to  see  that  they  are  right.  He  then  by  gradual  stages 
increases  the  speed  till  they  are  doing  it  quite  smartly. 
He  may  now  continue  it  by  the  counts,  one,  two,  etc., 
as  in  a  physical  exercise,  commending  the  men  who 
do  well,  noting  the  poor  ones  for  further  consideration. 
The  men  will  soon  have  caught  it,  and  he  can  now 
take  it  up  in  the  form  of  a  "drill  for  practice,"  a  smart 
precise  drill  for  discipline. 

183.  Close  Order  Drill.  This  drill  of  precision  for 
developing  discipline  is  the  ideal  of  drill.  Smart, 
snappy,  full  of  life  and  spirit,  it  should  be  made  the 
pride  of  the  men  and  the  delight  of  the  drill  master. 
The  men  should  always  leave  it  exhilarated,  enthusias- 
tic, and  sure  of  their  smartness  as  soldiers.  Attempted 
only  when  the  men  have  had  enough  instruction  in  the 
contemplated  movement  to  make  this  possible,  you 
may  expect  this  result  if  you  have  sufficient  enthusiasm 
and  appreciation  of  its  possibilities  to  have  visualized 
it,  and  pictured  yourself  leading  in  it. 

To  conduct  this  drill  you  have  got  to  know  every  de- 
tail of  the  movement  yourself.  In  preparing  yourself 
for  it,  visualize  its  execution  and  note  just  which  in- 


PSYCHOLOGICAL  ELEMENTS  141 

dividual  is  responsible  for  the  correctness  of  execution 
of  each  part.  Try  to  see  what  faults  are  likely  to  occur 
and  how  to  correct  them.  You  can  do  this  for  one 
movement  at  a  time — you  cannot  do  it  for  several. 
But  in  a  short  time  you  will  have  done  it  for  all,  and 
will  find  yourself  a  capable  drill  master. 

It  is  inconceivable  yet  true,  that  there  are  officers 
who  presume  to  conduct  a  drill,  and  yet  do  not  know  for 
certain  how  the  movements  they  order  are  to  be  exe- 
cuted. They  see  it  go  wrong,  and  cannot  tell  why; 
they  suspect  a  certain  thing  should  or  should  not  have 
been  done,  but  have  to  slur  over  it  because  they  are  not 
sure.  Of  course  they  cannot  make  corrections  or  intel- 
ligent comments,  hence  their  efforts  to  conduct  the 
drill  are  futile  or  worse.  This  may  be  the  fault  of 
having  tried  to  cover  too  much  ground  at  once.  It  is 
most  often  seen  where  work  is  not  scheduled  in  detail 
ahead  of  time. 

184.  It  is  not  enough  to  know  the  commands  and  to 
give  them  correctly;  to  make  their  execution  perfect 
is  the  real  thing.  The  very  essence  of  drill  requires 
that  the  instructor  shall  have  analyzed  each  movement 
in  detail,  till  he  knows  exactly  what  each  element 
should  be  doing  at  each  instant — then  and  then  only, 
will  he  be  able  to  put  his  finger  on  the  man  who  went 
wrong  and  show  him  how  he  spoiled  the  precision  of 
the  movement.  Here  is  General  Rimington's  analysis 
of  drill  and  you  might  well  recite  it  to  yourself  each 
morning  on  your  way  to  the  drill  ground.  "TO  DRILL 

RESOLVES    ITSELF    INTO    THE   POWER   TO   OBSERVE   AND 


142  MILITARY  MANPOWER 

CORRECT   MISTAKES,    AND   SO   TO   CORRECT   THEM   AS  TO 
MAKE    A    LASTING    IMPRESSION." 

Even  with  well-instructed  troops,  individuals  are 
constantly  making  mistakes,  it  may  be  through  in- 
attention, forgetfulness,  stupidity,  deviltry  or  even 
ignorance.  It  is  for  you  to  be  sure  to  see  the  mistake, 
to  let  the  man  know  you  saw  it,  to  estimate  its  cause, 
and  then  if  clever  enough  apply  the  appropriate  cor- 
rection so  it  will  not  be  forgotten.  Use  sarcasm  if  it 
be  justified,  but  do  not  wound  a  man's  pride  unless 
sure  he  deserves  it.  General  corrections  addressed  to 
the  whole  company  are  not  effective;  no  one  thinks 
they  mean  him.  Always  indicate  the  individuals  con- 
cerned. 

186.  Even  experienced  drill  masters  prepare  them- 
selves especially  for  each  drill  period;  think  out  in 
advance  what  they  will  do  and  how  to  do  it  to  get  good 
results.  They  appear  mentally  at  ease  and  resourceful 
only  because  of  careful  forethought.  You  cannot  hope 
to  do  well  without  it.  Realize  that  time  is  short,  each 
drill  is  precious,  and  be  sure  it  brings  your  men  one 
step  nearer  efficiency.  They  are  mostly  intelligent 
men.  Do  not  insult  their  intelligence  by  going  before 
them  unprepared  to  occupy  their  full  time  with  interest- 
ing instructive  work.  This  puts  it  right  up  to  you; 
and  no  man  can  occupy  a  full  drill  period  properly, 
without  having  first  fitted  himself  especially  for  it. 

Watch  the  instructor  who  has  thought  out  his  work, 
who  is  quick  and  sure  in  correcting  the  exact  individual 
mistake,  and  keeps  his  men  alert,  keen,  interested  and 


PSYCHOLOGICAL  ELEMENTS  143 

on  the  jump.  His  men  are  sweating  blood,  but  they  are 
getting  what  they  came  for,  their  eyes  are  bright,  and 
after  the  drill  they  are  enthusiastic  about  their  in- 
structor and  their  outfit.  Think  what  such  a  drill 
means  for  esprit  and  morale. 

Now  watch  the  instructor,  so  called,  who  is  un- 
prepared. He  gives  commands,  even  these  are  often 
incorrect.  He  shows  no  ability  to  get  accurate  per- 
formance— seems  incapable  of  it.  His  corrections,  if 
he  makes  any,  are  general  and  casual,  not  aimed  directly 
and  unerringly  at  the  exact  mistake.  Drill  lags, 
the  men  become  bored.  They  are  wasting  their  time 
and  they  know  it.  They  leave  the  drill  disgusted.* 
They  are  under  command  of  a  "dub,"  and  they  know  it. 
This  is  put  strongly  because  you  must  feel  it  strongly. 
Then  you  will  not  go  to  drill  and  be  ignorant  of  your 
part  in  it. 

186.  This  drill  of  precision  is  made  interesting  to  the 
men,  not  so  much  by  variety,  as  by  striving  for  perfection 
in  each  movement  undertaken;  by  putting  your  own 
vitality  and  enthusiasm  into  it;  by  caring  so  much  that 
every  man  be  exactly  right  every  instant  that  you  can- 
not tolerate  inaccuracy  or  inattention,  and  will  nail 
each  one  of  these  on  the  head  the  instant  it  appears;  and 
by  being  interested  yourself  and  showing  your  interest 
in  the  tone  of  your  commands.  This  requires  vitality 
on  your  part.  You  give  of  your  strength  and  spirit, 
and  put  them  into  the  men.  It  is  exhausting  work. 
If  you  are  personally  sick,  your  drill  will  be  sick.  Do 
not  presume  to  take  charge  then;  give  your  subordinate 


144  MILITARY  MANPOWER 

this  chance  at  command.  You  may  soon  so  train  your 
eye  that  it  will  catch  the  man  the  instant  he  starts  to  go 
wrong;  and  by  calling  his  name  and  telling  him  what 
to  do  quickly,  you  may  often  save  a  bad  break.  Do 

not  waste  time  and  energy  to  ask  "where  the  h •  he 

is  going.*'  He  might  stop  and  answer  you.  Tell  him 
where  to  go.  This  takes  training,  and  knowing  the 
men  by  name,  and  above  all  such  an  intimate  knowl- 
edge on  your  part  of  the  mechanism  of  each  movement 
that  you  can  stop  the  slip  the  instant  it  occurs. 

187.  It  is  possible  to  prolong  this  drill  too  far,  until 
close  attention  becomes  impossible    But  do  not  be  too 
easy,  too  careful  of  tiring  the  men.     Remember  you 
are  trying  to  train  their  wills  to  force  their  bodies  into 
exact  obedience  under  the  most  unfavorable  conditions. 
Hence,  while  the  drill  lasts,  attention  must  be  rigid  and 
performance  exactly  precise;  and  it  should  be  continued 
at  this  gait  until  it  has  tested  somewhat  their  powers  of 
endurance.     A  good  instructor  watches  this  at  each 
drill;    the   periods    will    naturally    grow   longer   with 
practice.     They  should  never  be  really  long.     The  very 
essence  of  this  drill  is  concentrated  attention,  and  a  rapid 
fire  of  commands,  snappy  executions,  and  terse  cor- 
rections.    Then  "REST! !  "    Do  not  ruin  the  effect  by 
dawdling.     "Rest!"    should    come    as    a    climax   to 
smarter  commands  and  execution,  and  you  actually  put 
more  "pep"  into  it  than  into  any  other  command. 

188.  Giving  your  squad  a  drill  of  precision  should  be 
like  training  a  college  football  squad.     Each  group  is 
composed  of  men  with  nerve  and  spirit  enough  to  fight 


PSYCHOLOGICAL  ELEMENTS  145 

for  the  honor  of  their  institution;  both  have  but  limited 
time  for  training;  both  must  be  so  trained  in  individual 
skill  coalesced  into  teamwork,  so  disciplined  by  drill,  so 
accustomed  to  sure  control  under  excitement,  made  so 
confident  of  their  ability  and  of  that  of  their  captain, 
that  they  will  go  to  the  field  of  conflict  with  a  morale 
that  knows  only  victory,  and  never  knows  defeat.  Then 
why  not  make  your  training  like  that  of  the  successful 
football  coach?  He  bows  to  no  time-honored  traditions 
of  making  automatons  of  his  men,  but  uses  their  in- 
telligence. They  must  come  to  the  field  knowing  the 
details  of  the  plays.  No  time  there  for  explanations. 

The  practice  is  to  coordinate  and  perfect  these  plays. 
It  is  stiff  and  hard,  under  positive  direction,  with  crisp 
individual  corrections,  and  brief  pointed  instructions. 
The  men  delight  in  it.  It  makes  them  sweat,  but  their 
blood  tingles  at  the  thought  of  the  coming  fight,  for 
they  are  confident  that  they  are  good  men  on  a  good 
team  under  a  smashing  good  captain.  The  same  plays 
are  practiced  over  and  over  again,  and  with  no  loss  of 
interest,  for  every  man  is  striving  for  the  perfection  of 
each  play.  Every  mistake  is  tersely  pointed  out  before 
the  play  is  repeated;  and  all  appreciate  that  only  by 
thoroughness  and  a  sure  knowledge  of  the  fundamentals 
can  the  team  get  that  morale  which  is  going  to  carry 
them  to  victory. 

189.  After  the  men  have  learned  the  fundamentals  of 
the  schools  of  the  soldier  and  the  platoon,  the  more 
advanced  drills  are  studies  for  the  officers  and  non- 
commissioned officers.  It  is  not  the  difficulty  of  teach- 


146  MILITARY  MANPOWER 

ing  the  movements  of  these  larger  units,  even  in  their 
perfection,  that  causes  most  ragged  drills — it  is  the 
instructor's  failure  to  keep  the  men's  interest  and 
attention  to  a  pitch  necessary  for  their  accurate  per- 
formance of  the  wheels,  turns,  obliques,  etc.  A  good 
drill  master  needs  to  be  a  psychologist,  by  nature  or 
by  acquisition,  so  to  handle  the  men  and  the  work  as  to 
keep  the  men  interested  and  alert.  The  drills  of  large 
units  should  impress  the  men  with  the  indomitable  force 
and  sureness  of  the  military  machine  through  the  co- 
hesion and  coordination  of  all  its  parts.  He  at  once 
becomes  interested  in  the  perfection  of  the  working  of 
his  own  part  and  that  of  his  team;  and  is  humiliated 
when  his  team  captain  leads  him  astray. 

190.  Guides.  The  smoothness  of  drill  movements 
is  more  dependent  upon  the  work  of  the  "guides"  than 
any  other  two  things.  Direction  and  gait  are  the  two 
essentials,  failure  in  either  will  upset  the  work  of  the 
best  drilled  company.  Instruction  should  include 
close  attention  to  them  from  the  first. 

As  any  man  may  find  himself  a  guide  at  any  time,  it 
is  absolutely  necessary  that  every  recruit  be  taught 
these  three  things: — how  to  march  in  a  straight  line, 
always  keeping  two  points  well  in  front  of  him  in  his 
line  of  march;  how  to  pick  up  the  new  direction  after 
a  wheel  or  turn,  quickly  and  accurately  at  the  correct 
angle;  and  the  vital  importance  of  holding  the  gait 
uniform  as  the  guide  shifts  from  one  man  to  another. 

Next,  all  leaders  must  appreciate  the  importance  of 
announcing  the  guide  whenever  the  movement  calls  for 


PSYCHOLOGICAL  ELEMENTS  147 

it,  of  seeing  that  there  is  no  misunderstanding  as  to 
what  individual  is  the  guide,  and  of  constantly  watching 
that  this  guide  be  correct  as  to  direction  and  gait.  In 
each  movement  and  part  of  a  movement  there  is  always 
one  man  responsible  for  direction  and  gait.  Unless  your 
study  of  each  movement  includes  an  understanding  of 
who  he  is  in  each  case,  you  are  powerless  to  make  proper 
corrections  or  to  assist  properly  in  the  execution  of 
movements  at  drill.  The  book  covers  this  matter  in 
every  case.  The  great  thing  is  to  realize  the  necessity 
of  considering  the  guide  and  the  gait  in  every  move- 
ment. Remember  this  general  rule:  Whenever  two  or 
more  men  march  beside  each  other,  they  form  a  rank, 
and  there  is  always  one  individual  man  in  that  rank 
who  is  responsible  for  its  gait  and  direction,  the  guide — 
and  the  others  must  regulate  themselves  on  him. 

191.  Each  outfit  strives  to  preserve  straight  elastic 
lines  in  marching.  Assuming  that  the  gfaide  is  doing 
his  part  the  one  thing  left  to  spoil  the  smoothness  is 
having  men  correct  their  positions  abruptly,  thus  send- 
ing waves  through  the  line,  or  causing  crowding.  The 
fundamental  principle  of  marching  in  line  is  that  each 
individual  shall  march  straight  to  the  front,  uniformly, 
at  the  same  rate  as  the  guide;  and  that  he  shall  make 
his  corrections  for  alignment  or  interval  very  gradually. 
This  gives  the  desired  elasticity  and  freedom  of  move- 
ment. Observe  its  corollary;  when  ordering  a  man  at 
drill  to  correct  interval  or  alignment,  you  must  be  care- 
ful to  do  it  in  a  tone  that  will  not  make  him  jump,  and  thus 
get  the  habit  of  doing  it  abruptly. 


148  MILITARY  MANPOWER 

192.  Distance.     March    discipline,    as    well    as    ac- 
curacy of  execution  of    movements  at  drill,  demands 
that  distances  be  accurately  observed  at  all    times. 
Explain  the  reasons  for  this  to  the  men,  and  thereafter 
insist  on  it  at  drill.     Elongation  in  a  column  is  generally 
inaugurated  at  the  command  for  marching,  because 
the  men  at  the  rear  of  the  column  do  not  take  the 
full  step  at  the  command.     Face  a  rank  toward  a  flank, 
command  forward  march  and  watch  the  steps  of  the 
rear  men.     At  drills,  always  see  that  the  men  in  rear 
obey  each  command  as  fully  as  do  those  in  front. 

193.  Alignment.     To    get    quick    alignment    of    a 
rank  at  a  halt,  give  your  whole  attention  first  to  seeing 
that  the  three  or  four  men  at  the  base  are  actually  in 
accurate  line  as  you  want  it.     The  others  will  easily 
form  on  such  a  base.     If  one  of  the  base  men  is  out  a  half 
inch,  it  is  quite  impossible  to  establish  the  line  without 
infinite  fussing. 

194.  Comments.     You  should  appreciate  the  neces- 
sity of  commenting  on  the  various  movements  at  drill. 
You  are  out  there  as  an  instructor,  a  critic  of  their 
work.     You  command  "squads  right,  march."     The 
men  try  to  execute  it  properly.     You  say  nothing,  but 
perhaps  give  the  same  command  again.     They  wonder 
why.     Was  some  one  wrong?     Who?     No  one  knows. 
If  it  was  done  correctly,  they  should  have  the  satisfac- 
tion of  knowing  it;  call  out,  "good/*     If  you  think  it 
could  be  done  better,  say  so;  explain  wherein,  and  order 
it  again.     Make  the  drill  personal  to  each  man,  vitalize 
it,  show  the  men  that  you  know  good  work  from  bad, 


PSYCHOLOGICAL  ELEMENTS  149 

and  that  you  want  only  good.  Use  your  voice.  Per- 
haps the  general  execution  is  poor;  the  men  are  careless, 
perhaps  they  have  not  yet  settled  down  to  business. 
The  tone  of  your  command  as  you  repeat  it  will  be  the 
only  comment  necessary,  and  each  man  will  realize  that 
he  must  wake  up. 

195.  Personal  Corrections.     But  where  all  are  try- 
trying  to  drill  well — and  it  is  up  to  you  to  see  that 
they  are, — if  a  movement  has  been  marred  by  certain 
individuals,  they  should  be  corrected  personally.     Where 
all,  leaders  and  men,  are  working  together  to  learn  the 
game,  there  is  no  affront  in  a  personal  correction,  unless 
you  unfortunately  put  it  in  your  tone  or  manner  in 
making  the  correction.     Where  the  mistakes  result  from 
shiftlessness,  a  little  affront  might  be  timely,  and  is  no 
more  than  due  to  the  others  who  are  trying.     You  must 
learn  to  talk  as  occasions   demand  it.     A  company 
could  arrange  to  have  a  phonograph  grind  out  com- 
mands, if  commands  were  all  it  needed  for  drill. 

196.  "Pep."     The  curse  of  any  drill  is  letting  things 
drag  along.     Every  minute  so  spent  is  doing  positive 
harm.     You  have  got  to  realize  the  truth  of  that.     The 
controlling  principle  for  every  minute  actually  spent  in 
training  must  be  learning  how  to  be  that  one  second 
quicker  than  the  enemy.     Your  drill  hours  are  long, 
yes,  but  every  drill  manual  provides  for  frequent  rests. 
This  means  that  it  is  intended  that  the  actual  drill  shall 
be  so  smart,  so  intense,  that  rest  becomes  necessary. 
Every  good  drill  master  bores  with  full  force  on  the 
work  in  hand  while  he  is  at  it,  goes  nearly  to  the  limit 


150  MILITARY  MANPOWER 

of  keeping  up  that  high  tension;  then  calls  REST!  and 
every  one  relaxes  into  a  rest  that  is  appreciated.  The 
poor  drill  master  gives  rest  because  he  and  his  men  are 
tired? — Yes;  tired  in  the  sense  of  being  bored.  No  use 
for  him  to  call  attention  and  pretend  to  be  busy  when 
the  captain  appears,  the  dull  faces  of  his  men  betray 
him: — as  the  keen  interested  expressions  show  good 
work  in  the  other  squad. 

All  drill  has  got  to  have  "peP>"  and  the  drill  master 
has  got  to  put  it  there.  Do  not  talk  about  "having  the 
stupidest  men  you  ever  saw."  Men  average  about  the 
same,  and  if  drill  is  going  wrong  it  is  generally  your 
fault.  Stop  and  think  it  over.  Try  to  find  wherein 
you  have  failed  and  correct  it.  Perhaps  your  en- 
thusiasm expected  to  find  "pep"  in  the  men  before 
you  had  aroused  it.  Perhaps  you  have  been  too  im- 
patient, or  have  run  them  beyond  their  limit.  They 
are  not  as  highly  trained  as  you.  Be  sure  you  give 
enough  rest  to  justify  demanding  keenness  when  they 
do  work.  And  at  each  rest  think  out  exactly  what  you 
will  do  next,  so  there  will  be  no  uncertainty  or  dawdling 
when  you  do  take  hold.  And  no  matter  what  the  work, 
from  executing  right  dress  to  the  endurance  run,  get 
the  spirit  of  doing  it  the  one  second  faster  than  the  other 
fellow. 

197.  Alertness.  Military  training  means  mental 
alertness;  quick,  sure  comprehension  and  execution  of 
orders.  How  absurd  then  for  a  drill  master  to  get  the 
habit  of  repeating  his  commands  and  instructions  two 
or  three  times  before  he  gets  results.  And  yet  we  often 


PSYCHOLOGICAL  ELEMENTS  151 

hear  this  at  drills.  Such  a  drill  master  is  developing 
mental  lassitude  in  his  men.  His  captain  should  depose 
him,  for  he  is  spoiling  his  soldiers.  Get  attention, 
give  a  command  once,  and  land  on  the  man  who  does 
not  observe  it.  As  a  test  of  mental  alertness,  con- 
centration of  attention,  try  this :  Step  up  to  a  squad  in 
line  and  command,  "At  the  command  go,  numbers  one 
execute  about  face,  numbers  two  left  face,  numbers 
three  right  face,  numbers  four  two  paces  to  the  front. 
Go!"  Then  check  up  and  see  what  men  have  done  the 
right  thing.  You  can  devise  many  similar  tests.  They 
will  stimulate  the  keenness  of  the  squad. 

198.  Along  the  same  line  is  the  fault  of  always  hepping 
the  cadence  when  marching.     Do  it  rarely,  and  for 
not  to  exceed  six  or  eight  counts, — force  the  men  to 
do  their  own  thinking  and  to  act  quickly  in  catching 
step.     Otherwise  they  will  lean  on  the  file  closer  end- 
lessly to  keep  them  in  step.     And  if  drill  is  lagging, 
one  way  to  put  life  into  it  is  to  increase  the  cadence  to 
128  a  minute.     That  makes  dragging  quite  impossible. 

199.  Commands.     The  actual  giving  of  commands 
at  drill  is  an  art  in  itself.     In  addition  to  the  instructions 
of  your  drill  manual,  remember  always  that  your  com- 
mand is  for  the  man  furthest  from  you,  the  rear  man  in 
a  column  as  well  as  the  leading,  and  insist  on  his  obeying 
your  command  of  execution  as  exactly  as   the  leading 
man. 

Experiment  with  giving  commands,  and  you  will 
find  that  by  your  manner  and  tone  of  voice  alone  you 
can  actually  control  the  kind  of  execution  your  com- 


152  MILITARY  MANPOWER 

mand  receives.  You  can  get  careful,  deliberate  results 
or  quick  nervous  ones,  as  you  desire.  Your  tone 
may  be  such  as  fairly  to  put  the  men  to  sleep,  or  it  may 
have  such  vim  that  some  muscle  must  jump  at  the 
command  of  execution.  How  often  we  see  all  the  snap 
taken  out  of  a  company  by  an  officer  whose  commands 
lack  punch  and  vitality.  And  again  a  skillful  officer  will, 
by  his  tone  of  command,  lift  a  company  out  of  its  dream 
and  inject  life  and  snap  into  every  movement;  best  of 
all,  he  can  take  an  outfit  that  has  become  "rattled" 
through  poor  leadership,  the  men  nervously  trying  hard 
but  unable  to  do  anything  correctly,  and  with  a  few 
quietly  given  commands  bring  them  back  to  easy  con- 
trol and  accurate  performance.  If  you  aspire  to  become 
a  reasonably  good  drill  master  you  must  study  the  art 
of  giving  commands  properly. 

200.  Where  a  command  of  execution  is  a  word  of 
more  than  one  syllable,  the  accent  of  command  must 
be  put  on  the  last  syllable,  preceded  by  enough  pause 
to  let  it  be  shot  out  with  compelling  force.     For  example, 
you  cannot  get  snappy  execution  out  of  the  command 
At-ten' '-tion.     But  you  can  make  the  men  jump  into 
place  with  At-ten— TION' ! 

201.  In  emergency  be  sure  to  give  the  proper  usual 
military  command  for  any  desired  action.     If  the  men 
are  excited  they  will  be  sensitive  to   any  departure 
from  the  usual.     If  they  feel  that  you  cannot  control 
them  by  usual  methods,  they  are  likely  to  become  un- 
certain in  their  action,  to  lose  confidence  in  you  and  their 
training.     To  illustrate:  A  company  was  unexpectedly 


PSYCHOLOGICAL  ELEMENTS  153 

assembled  to  meet  an  emergency.  The  lieutenant  in 
command  told  the  men  to  "load  their  pieces."  A  wave 
of  uncertainty  swept  down  the  rank,  with  here  and 
there  a  man  starting  nervously  to  load.  The  old-soldier 
first  sergeant,  instinctively  grasping  the  situation, 
jumped  in  front  and  commanded,!  "Steady."  And 
then,  "Company,  Load!"  And  the  rank  stiff ened  into 
a  confident  machine. 

202.  Here  is  a  senseless  habit  of  the  old  service  which 
creates  a  bad  effect  on  new  men,  and  should  be  dropped. 
Always  in  speaking  to  a  man  about  any  object  he  is 
using,  the  custom  is  to  designate  it  as  "that"  gun,  that 
bayonet,  etc.,  in  a  tone  as  though  the  gun  were  peculiarly 
odious  for  some  reason.     The  expression  loses  all  force 
for  needful  occasions  by  its  common  use  for  all. 

203.  Attention.     One  of  the  constant  objects  of  all 
drill  is  to  develop  in  the  individual  self-control  and  his 
powers  of  endurance.     You  should  therefore  insist  on  a 
rigid  observance  of  "Attention"     Not  a  muscle  should 
be  allowed  to  move.     Men  should  stand   absolutely 
immobile.     Let  them  know  the  reasons  for  this,  and 
they  will  take  a  pride  in  doing  it. 

204.  That  attention  which  is  to  result  in  perceptions 
which  will  be  retained  by  the  memory  is  more  a  physical 
state  than  a  mental  one.     The  spine  must  be  erect,  and 
chest  slightly  raised  to  make  free  breathing  easy.     If 
this  position  of  attention  be  held  absolutely,  the  facul- 
ties  are  necessarily   concentrated,   and   the   memory 
receives  clear-cut,  complete,  indelible  impressions.     If 
the  body  be  at  ease,  faculties  are  relaxed,  and  attention 


154  MILITARY  MANPOWER 

wanders  at  the  call  of  passing  impressions; — a  dog's 
bark  recalls  some  distant  scene,  a  drop  of  sweat  makes 
you  think  of  the  night  before,  and  away  the  mind  goes. 
Thus  the  instructor's  remarks  make  but  intermittent 
impressions  at  best. 

If  you  are  appealing  to  the  men's  reason,  explaining 
something  interesting,  they  may  well  stand  "at  ease." 
But  if  you  want  them  to  remember  exactly  what  you  are 
saying,  exact  the  strictest  observance  of  the  position  of 
attention,  and  then  see  to  it  that  your  remarks  are 
worthy  of  concentrated  attention.  Do  not  repeat  or 
ramble. 

205.  Chiefs  of  platoons  and  file  closers  must  avoid 
talking  to  the  men  in  ranks  when  the  instructor  is 
making  explanations,  or  giving  commands.     It  is  im- 
possible for  a  man  in  ranks  to  give  attention  to  two  men 
at  once.     And  their  corrections  must  be  directed  to 
the  individual  at  fault,  first  calling  his  name,  and  using 
a  tone  that  will  carry  to  him  alone — all  this  to  avoid  dis- 
tracting the  attention  of  the  other  men. 

206.  File  Closers  have  an  important  part  to  play  in 
watching  for  mistakes  and  correcting  them  before  quite 
committed,  and  in  keeping  the  men  alert  and  soldierly. 
Give  each  his  own  part  of  the  line  to  watch,  his  "fire- 
sector"  as  it  were,  and  get  after  him  now  and  then,  in- 
stead of  correcting  the  man  himself,  whom  the  file  closer 
should  have  corrected.     It  is  a  good  sign  to  see  a  file 
closer  call  an  individual  to  attention  when  the  company 
has  been  given  "rest,"  and  give  him  some  needed 
instruction.     It  will  not  only  help  this  individual,  but 


PSYCHOLOGICAL  ELEMENTS  155 

will  add  to  the  attentiveness  of  the  others  during  the 
remainder  of  the  drill. 

207.  Counting    Aloud.     Instructors    should    under- 
stand the  difference  between  counting  aloud  for  the 
execution   of    a    movement    "by   the   numbers"    and 
counting  aloud  to  mark  the  cadence.     In  execution  by 
the  numbers,  each  count  is  a  command  of  execution, 
and  so  marks  the  beginning  of  a  motion,  while  in  count- 
ing for  cadence  each  count  marks  the  termination  of  a 
motion.     For  example,  in  manual  of  arms  by  the  num- 
bers, the  commands  will  be  Right  shoulder,  ARMS, 
TWO,  THREE.     "Three"  will  be  given  with  the  left 
hand  at  the  right  shoulder,  and  will  result  in  having  it 
brought  down.     In  the  same  movement  counting  aloud 
to  mark  cadence  the  command  is  Right  shoulder,  ARMS, 
One,  Two,  Three;  the  count  "one"  marking  the  com- 
pletion of  the  first  motion,  and  "three"  the  completion 
of  the  last,  thus  being  given  with  the  left  hand  at  the 
left  side,  rather  than  at  the  right  shoulder  as  before. 

208.  Giving  Command  on  Certain  Foot.     Whenever 
you  are  to  give  a  command  of  execution  as  a  certain 
foot  is  planted,  you  must  actually  give  it  just  before 
the  foot  strikes  the  ground,  in  order  that  the  command 
may   make   its   impression    on   the   men's   minds   as 
they   plant   this   foot.     You   may   gain   precision   of 
execution  of  obliques  and  turns  by  giving  the  command 
of  execution  as  in  "By  the  flank."     This  is  not  pre- 
scribed, nor  desired,  unless  on  some  occasion  for  an 
effort  at  extreme  smartness,  as  in  a  competitive  drill. 
Every  commander  of  a  unit  must  know  how  to  take  up 


156  MILITARY  MANPOWER 

the  forward  march  in  step  with  the  music  or  with  a 
leading  element.  He  gives  the  command  march  with 
the  accented  beat  of  the  music;  or  as  the  left  feet  of  the 
leaders  strike  the  ground. 

209.  Extended    Order.    The   object   of   extended 
order  drills  is  to  teach  the  mechanism  of  control  for 
maneuver  and  battle.     They  offer  an  interesting  phase 
of  training,  for  both  men  and  leaders  are  here  learning 
the  details  of  the  actual  plays  they  are  going  to  use 
against  the  enemy.     Here  are  found  the  principles  and 
movements  by  which  the  squad  leader  trains  both  him- 
self and  his  men  into  the  squad  team,  so  they  may 
participate  as  such  in  the  battle  exercises  of  the  com- 
pany.    Here   the  noncommissioned  officer  first  finds 
himself  playing  an  independent  part  as  a  responsible 
member  of  the  company  team; — whose  efficiency  as  a 
fighting  machine  will  depend  on  the  excellence  of  these 
component  elements,  the  squad  teams.     Here  he  gets 
his  best  chance  for  self-training  as  a  leader,  and  for 
training  his  men  to  work  together  as  a  team  under  him. 
Here  is  the  best  opportunity  for  developing  the  neces- 
sary   individualistic    qualities    of    the    soldier.     The 
psychological  effects  to  be  had  from  these  drills  and 
exercises    are    tremendous    and    demand    that  these 
exercises  be  held  frequently,  rather  than  rarely,  as  has 
been  the  custom.     A  live  officer  welcomes  these  oppor- 
tunities for  ingenuity,    and   gets   the  best  soldierly 
development  from  them. 

210.  The  Fire  Fight.    The  ultimate  object  of  these 
movements  is  to  engage  successfully  in  the  fire  fight 


PSYCHOLOGICAL  ELEMENTS  157 

and  this  introduces  many  psychological  considerations 
into  the  conduct  of  training.  Every  noncommissioned 
officer  should  realize  that  in  the  fire  fight  on  the  battle 
field,  no  matter  if  the  order  come  from  the  highest  gen- 
eral, its  ultimate  execution  will  be  carried  out  through 
the  squad  leaders.  This  is  a  grave  responsibility.  In 
this  school  he  trains  himself  and  his  team  so  they  can  be 
trusted  to  meet  it.  Whenever  the  squad  moves  the  squad 
leader  actually  leads  it.  The  men  take  all  instructions 
and  .directions  from  their  squad  leaders,  who  look  to 
the  chiefs  of  platoons  for  signals,  or  direct  to  the  com- 
pany commander,  and  repeat  them  to  the  men. 

Training  in  the  advance  by  rushes  or  by  creeping 
should  be  conducted  in  this  school  with  a  view  to  teach- 
ing the  men  how  to  use  the  accidents  of  the  ground 
to  best  advantage,  and  particularly  to  training  the 
leader  and  his  men  in  working  together  through  varied 
ground  constantly  controlled  by  the  will  of  the  leader 
expressed  by  signals.  They  must  advance  when  and 
where  the  leader  wishes,  halt  when  and  where  he 
wishes,  fire  when  and  how  he  wishes.  The  absolute 
control  of  the  leader  which  will  be  necessary  in  battle 
is  thus  established  here  in  training.  Let  the  enemy  be 
represented  and  firing  blank  ammunition,  and  enough 
excitement  will  prevail  to  render  this  so  realistic  as  to 
afford  difficult  conditions  for  leadership  and  real  train- 
ing for  all. 

An  important  point  in  training  in  varied  country,  is  to 
teach  the  men  to  get  their  individual  firing  positions 
quickly  and  properly,  at  the  preliminary  command  for 


158  MILITARY  MANPOWER 

firing.  For  while  getting  the  best  available  cover  that 
enables  them  to  see  the  objective,  they  must  still  remem- 
ber their  comrades,  and  observe  reasonable  intervals 
and  a  general  alignment  to  avoid  injuring  each  other. 

211.  In  training  thus  for  actual  battle  you  and  your 
men  should  think  of  the  conditions  under  which  you  will 
make  these  plays,  and  fit  yourselves  to  meet   them 
firmly.    As  you  thus  advance  in  the  attack  you  will  hear 
the  shrapnel  screeching  just  over  your  head,  and  it  is  well 
that  you  have  anticipated  this  and  understand  that  it  is 
going  to  burst  in  the  enemy's  trenches  in  front  of  you, 
reducing  his  fighting  power  against  you.     Then  instead 
of  shrinking  with  dread  as  you  hear  it,  you  may  cheer- 
fully wish  it  Godspeed  on  its  mission.    And  this  will 
continue  until  you  are  practically  at  his  position,  and 
our  shrapnel  are  screaming  by  not  so  many  feet  over 
your  head.     You  will  also  be  fired  over  by  hose-like 
streams  of  bullets  from  the  machine  guns,  showers  from 
the  troops  in  position,  and  who  knows  what!     It  is 
part  of  infantry  training  and  discipline  to  accept  these 
cheerfully,  realizing  that  they  can  be  far  less  injured 
by  accidental  hits  than  they  would  be  by  the  enemy 
but  for  this  added  shower  of  bullets. 

212.  And  when  the  captain  gives  commands  for 
opening  fire,  what  is  your  responsibility?    To  meet  that 
last  most  important  requirement,  the  delivery  of  the 
most  effective  fire.    Here  is  the  fruition  of  the  squad 
leader's  training  of  his  team.     Has  he  brought  his  men 
to  this  point  confident  in  themselves  and  in  him?    Can 
he  get  cool  response  to  his  commands,  and  carefully 


PSYCHOLOGICAL  ELEMENTS  159 

aimed  shots?  Leadership  will  be  tested,  the  degree  of 
discipline  that  has  been  attained.  In  this  approach 
and  in  opening  this  fire  are  you  and  your  men  mutually 
helping  the  morale  of  each  other,  as  do  the  members  of  a 
football  team  as  they  trot  out  on  the  field  to  meet  their 
strongest  rival — a  jolly  here,  a  quiet  word  there,  and  a 
sharp  jolt  to  another?  A  little  conversation  in  these 
tense  moments  will  often  dissipate  the  grip  that  appre- 
hension is  getting  on  your  faculties.  You  may  thus 
help  yourself  by  trying  to  help  others,  and  thus  lessen 
the  strain.  If  you  must  think  of  self,  why  not  think  you 
are  big  game  shooting,  where  to  miss  your  aim  may  cost 
your  life.  You  would  force  yourself  to  be  steady  then, 
why  not  now?  You  would  not  begin  shooting  up  the 
landscape  then  but  would  hold  steady  for  a  good  target. 
Do  the  same  now. 

213.  Battle  Exercises  are  held  on  varied  ground, 
preferably  unfamiliar,  and  are  for  the  purpose  of  prac- 
ticing the  "plays"  you  have  learned  at  extended  order 
drill,  developing  the  leader's  ability  to  make  quick  de- 
cisions in  emergency,  to  use  the  right  "play"  for  the 
occasion,  to  keep  quiet  control  in  excitement.  They 
are  the  practical  ends  of  training,  absolutely  necessary  to 
fitness  for  war.  Without  them,  you  are  no  more  ready 
for  a  fight  than  a  boxer  who  had  learned  the  blows,  the 
parries,  and  the  footwork,  but  had  never  practiced  them 
on  a  friendly  opponent.  You  will  have  to  act  almost  as 
quickly  as  he,  and,  under  the  terrific  strain  of  the 
battle  field,  will  need  that  much  practice  shall  have 
made  correct  decisions  come  to  you  intuitively. 


160  MILITARY  MANPOWER 

For  this  reason  these  exercises  are  always  made  as 
real  as  possible,  by  assuming  in  each  case  a  reasonable 
military  situation,  of  which  your  exercise  is  a  part,  by 
always  explaining  in  advance  this  situation  to  the  men 
so  they  may  know  why  they  are  "making  these  special 
plays,"  by  never  repeating  the  same  exercise  twice 
alike,  by  assuming  the  presence  of  an  enemy  and  re- 
presenting him  when  possible,  and  by  the  use  of  blank 
ammunition  to  lend  added  reality.  They  should  be 
made  very  simple  at  first;  you  will  find  that  the  sim- 
plest, if  at  all  realistic,  will  give  you  all  the  excitement 
and  confusion  you  can  well  handle.  Squad  problems 
are  large  enough.  In  fact,  until  the  squad  leader  can 
exercise  intelligent,  quiet  control  of  his  squad  in 
emergency,  it  is  folly  for  the  captain  to  attempt  to 
handle  the  company. 

If  you  think  this  too  simple,  try  it.  Plan  to  conduct  a 
squad  as  part  of  a  problem  through  some  section  of 
broken  country,  and  let  two  men  representing  an 
enemy  unexpectedly  open  fire  on  you  from  ambush. 
If  you  then  handle  your  men  properly,  calm  their 
excitement  rather  than  increase  it  by  your  own,  you  are 
justified  in  looking  for  rapid  advancement  when  the 
real  test  comes. 

214.  As  soon  as  the  mechanism  of  extended  order 
drill  is  perfected,  you  are  ready  to  apply  it  in  these 
practical  exercises,  and  it  is  only  thus  that  you  will  get 
any  clear  conceptions  of  troop  leading,  of  combat,  pa- 
trolling, marching  and  bivouacing.  And  this  is  the 
kind  of  soldiering,  not  drill  in  close  order,  that  the  man 


PSYCHOLOGICAL  ELEMENTS  161 

had  in  mind  when  he  enlisted.  He  will  be  keen  for  it, 
and  disappointed  unless  he  gets  some  experience  in 
roughing  it,  in  the  thrill  of  an  advance  to  the  attack, 
or  the  stealthy  approach  of  a  patrol. 

215.  In  all  these  exercises,  a  sense  of  reality  must 
lend  the  element   of  excitement  and  earnestness,  so 
Important  for  the  psychological  training  in  control. 
This  is  best  done  by  the  use  of  blank  ammunition  by 
those  representing  the  enemy.     You  will  be  astonished 
to  find  how  with  beginners  a  single  unexpected  shot  will 
start  the  heart  beats,  and  how  a  few  volleys  will  set 
their  nerves  a-tingle.     These  are  the  conditions  that 
show  up   a  man's   qualities   for  leadership.     And  in 
every  organization  the  officers  should  be  looking  out 
for  the  men  who  here  show  qualities  of  leadership, 
and  give  them  opportunities  for  development.  The  idea 
should  prevail  that  every  man  is  a  potential  leader,  and 
that  we  need  many  of  them.     This  will  make  the  men 
eager  to  learn  their  parts  better. 

216.  Effect   on   Individuals.    The   company   is   the 
highest  organization  in  which  the  commander  deals 
directly  with  the  individual  men.     Drills  and  exer- 
cises of  larger  units  are  primarily  for  the  benefit  of  the 
officers.     The  men,  however,  get  much  benefit,  when 
each  organization  is  handled  smartly  by  its  leader,  made 
to  work  smoothly  as  a  well-drilled  team,  its  elements 
always   in   good   order.     And   this   idea     must  carry 
through,  down  to  include  the  squad.     In  reality  the 
squad  is  the  prime  unit  for  training  individuals,  par- 
ticularly in  these  extended  battle  exercises.     Here  the 


162  MILITARY  MANPOWER 

leader  best  studies  his  men,  to  learn  their  individual 
peculiarities  and  capabilities.  And  this  he  must  do 
faithfully,  for  it  will  be  vital  later  that  he  know  which 
man  to  send  on  any  given  important  mission.  Well, 
too,  that  he  keep  in  mind  that  his  men  are  studying 
him  as  well.  He  may  make  mistakes,  but  if  he  hopes  ever 
to  lead  these  men  in  battle,  let  them  not  be  mistakes  of 
weakness,  indecision,  or  failure  to  jump  into  openings 
that  may  offer. 

217.  The  squad  leader  should   realize  that  he  is 
responsible  that  all  his  men  know  their  parts  so  well 
that  he  can  handle  them  with  perfect  control  in  what- 
ever conditions  arise  in  unknown  varied  ground.     He 
must  practice  them  in  advancing  through  country  with 
the  best  possible  concealment  and  the  least  loss  of  time 
and  control;  in  quickly  and  quietly  occupying  a  given 
firing  position  in  all  kinds  of  places  and  under  all 
manner  of  circumstances;  in  delivering  the  kind  of  fire 
he  wants,  and  at  the  exact  desired  objective;  in  changing 
the  fire,  and  the  objective;  in  rushing  forward  and  oc- 
cupying a  new  position;  in  scouting,  in  rallying;  in  fact 
in  all  the  experiences  of  the  field,  he  must  be  sure 
through  much  mutual  practice  that  they  will  under- 
stand his  will,  and  know  how  to  perform  it  accurately. 

218.  Designating  the  Target.     One  of  the  most  dif- 
ficult things  will  be  to  designate  the  desired  objective 
for  their  fire.     The  living  target  may  not  be  visible, 
probably  will  not  be.     You  have  got  to  direct  the  fire 
of  your  men  so  the  bullets  will  strike  more  than  a  half 
mile  away  in  a  limited  space  which  you  can  barely 


PSYCHOLOGICAL  ELEMENTS  163 

make  out  with  your  field  glasses.  This  means  for  you 
not  only  the  ability  to  estimate  the  range  correctly 
but,  equally  important,  the  ability  to  define  the  location 
of  that  space  to  your  men  in  such  a  way  that  they  may 
aim  correctly  to  hit  it.  Try  this  for  an  objective  diffi- 
cult to  point  out,  and  you  will  appreciate  the  need  for 
much  practice.  Always  select  a  target  difficult  to 
locate,  and  require  the  men  to  follow  your  definition  of 
it  attentively,  till  they  are  aiming  at  the  exact  point 
desired.  TheD,  in  the  excitement  of  battle,  habit 
may  induce  them  to  look  to  you  for  directions  whereto 
fire.  Otherwise  they  will  fire  at  will  at  what  seems  the 
most  dangerous  target,  and  perhaps  by  so  doing,  defeat 
the  very  object  of  your  being  in  line  at  all.  And  how 
many  nicely  laid  plans  have  been  defeated  by  the 
premature  firing  of  some  undisciplined  soldier,  too  nerv- 
ous to  play  his  part  properly  in  the  teamwork.  Be 
very  faithful  in  much  practice  of  all  the  phases  of  fire 
control. 

219.  Loss  of  Leaders.     Leaders  are  going  to  fall  out 
unexpectedly  in  the  battle.     This  suggests  most  im- 
portant practice.     Arrange  that  certain  ones  shall  drop 
out  unexpectedly,   without  warning,   at  critical  mo- 
ments in  the  development  of  an  exercise.     See  that  the 
next  man  quietly  assumes  the  responsibility  of  leader- 
ship,  without  confusing   the  men.     They   should   be 
accustomed  to  this  by  practice,  so  that  it  will  not  shock 
them  in  battle.     Be  sure  that  the  order  of  seniority  is 
always  known  in  advance. 

220.  Do   Not   Seek    Perfection.     And   hi   all   these 


164  MILITARY  MANPOWER 

exercises,  expect  many  mistakes  to  be  made.  Do  not 
try  to  avoid  them  by  telling  your  leaders  in  advance 
how  to  handle  each  situation.  No  one  is  going  to  be 
able  to  tell  them  in  battle;  and  only  by  personal 
experience  can  their  minds  be  trained  to  do  this  thinking 
correctly  for  themselves.  Sacrifice  your  desire  to  pull 
off  a  perfect  exercise,  to  the  greater  good  of  developing 
their  initiative,  and  willingness  to  take  responsibility. 

221.  Decision    and    Resourcefulness  from    Practice. 
He  will  be  an  impossible  leader  on  the  battlefield, 
who,   suddenly   confronted   by   a   situation,   tries   to 
stop    and    think    how    Alexander    or    Baden-Powell 
would  have  handled  it.     Rather  let  him  then  respond 
to  the  impulse  of  the  recollection  that  both  were  men 
of  wonderful  nerve,  and  above  all — resource;  and  let  him 
realize  now,  in  his  training,  that  the  development  of 
these  qualities  by  practice,  is  going  to  result  in  some 
hope  of  his  having  on  the  battle  field  enough  of  these 
qualities  to  make  his  own  quick  decision  the  best  rule 
of  conduct.     Once  out  in  the  country,  it  takes  only  a 
fair  imagination,   and  an  honest  willingness   to   use 
your  brain,  to  devise  an  endless  series  of  small  exer- 
cises, in  patrol,  outpost,  attack  and  similar  problems, 
one  squad  against  another,  introducing  an  element  of 
surprise,  in  all  of  which  both  you  and  your  men  will  be 
getting  the  practice  that  will  develop  the  qualities  of 
courage,  steady  nerve,  and  resource,  so  necessary  for 
all  in  battle. 

222.  Night  exercises  are  particularly  valuable  for  this 
training.    You  will  be  astonished  to  find  how  darkness 


PSYCHOLOGICAL  ELEMENTS  165 

will  magnify  the  soldier's  nervousness,  and  diminish  his 
common  sense  and  courage.  Practice  only  will  ever 
enable  you  to  operate  at  all  after  dark.  From  adjusting 
equipment  hurriedly  in  the  dark,  to  keeping  up  proper 
communication  and  control  in  the  advance  to  an 
attack,  each  step  should  be  practiced,  until  familiarity 
has  developed  faculties  and  steady  nerves  in  these 
unusual  conditions.  These  exercises  are  particularly 
important  now,  when  most  troop  movements  are  made 
under  cover  of  darkness. 

223.  Desired  Elements  in  the  Critique.    Always  and 
preferably  at  once  on  the  immediate  ground,  each 
exercise  should  be  discussed,  how  it  could  have  been 
done,  and  how  not.     And  in  these  discussions,  do  not 
arbitrate  solely  according  to  fixed  precepts.     Ba  sure, 
too,  that  your  criticisms  are  constructive.     Do  not  de- 
stroy all  initiative  by  always  finding  that  the  work  of  the 
subordinate  was  bad.   Encourage  the  use  of  expedients, 
above  all  the  application  of  cunning  and  common  sense. 
These  will  be  invaluable  qualities  for  men  engaged  in 
small  affairs,  scouting,  patrolling,  etc. ; — while  in  a  large 
way  camouflage  has  become  one  of  the  most  important 
phases  of  the  art  of  war. 

224.  Using  Time  to  Advantage.     If  the  nature  of  an 
exercise  is  such  that  many  must  be  idle,  while  the  few 
are  engaged,  plan  to  occupy  this  time  with  interesting 
instruction  or  practice: — estimating  distances;  explain- 
ing some  interesting  thing  connected  with  the  service; 
form  two  circuits  of  the  men  and  hold  a  competition  in 
the  correct  transmission  of  a  verbal  message;  hold  a 


166  MILITARY  MANPOWER 

contest  in  signaling,  in  caring  for  a  comrade  wounded 
in  some  specified  manner,  etc.,  etc.  Forethought  on 
your  part  will  provide  for  this.  And  whatever  you  do, 
explain  your  object  and  reasons,  and  thus  enlist  intelli- 
gent cooperation. 

225.  There  are  many  homely  things  of  practical 
instruction  that  even  a  well-drilled  soldier  must  know 
before  he  is  fit  to  go  into  campaign: — the  proper  use  of 
equipment,  individual  cooking  and  tent  pitching,  guard 
duty,    entrenching,    small-arm   firing,    patrolling,  first 
aid  to  the  wounded,  and  so  on.     They  will  seem  endless ; 
and  there  is  just  one  way  to  learn  them,  and  that  is 
one  thing  at  a  time.    This  is  an  important  part  of  the 
captain's  schedule.     He  lists  all  the  things  he  is  going 
to  teach,  determines  the  time  he  can  give  to  each,  and 
then  apportions  them  to  the  drill  periods  each  day. 
Most  of  this  instruction  can  best  be  given  by  non- 
commissioned officers  to  small  groups,  for  it  consists 
largely  in  illustration  and  practice  under  supervision, 
where  a  few  men  only  are  much  more  satisfactorily 
handled  than  many.     System,  forethought  and  previous 
preparation  hi  each  case,  will  enable  you  to  cover  the 
whole   ground   quite   satisfactorily.     They   will   lend 
variety  and  a  practical  interest  to  the  drill  periods,  and 
result  in  making  the  men  feel  that  they  are  progressing 
each  day.    Suggestions  can  be  made  in  the  cases  of  a 
few  of  these  subjects  only,  designed  to  increase  interest 
through  emphasizing  their  spirit. 

226.  Marching.     March  discipline  is  perhaps  the 
most  important  phase  of  training  for  tie  infantry 


PSYCHOLOGICAL  ELEMENTS  167 

soldier.  From  the  first  it  should  be  practiced  and  its 
rules  rigidly  enforced.  A  column  marching  in  perfect 
order,  swinging  along  with  rhythmic  stride,  is  an  inspiring 
sight,  and  the  soldier  early  likes  to  be  a  participant  in 
it.  Pride  in  perfect  marching  is  easily  aroused.  But 
greatest  attention  must  be  paid  to  cadence,  even  in  route 
step;  to  exact  distances;  to  halts  and  to  observance  of 
the  rules  of  the  road.  The  necessity  for  all  these 
should  be  explained  to  the  soldier,  who  should  be  made 
to  realize  that  once  the  column  is  formed  and  started  he 
is  as  securely  locked  into  it  until  the  next  halt  as  though 
he  were  locked  into  a  French  box  car  between  stations. 
Falling  out  or  straggling  should  be  considered  almost 
impossible, — except  to  save  life.  What  an  example  of 
the  strength  and  cohesion  of  the  organization  is  such  a 
body  of  troops  on  the  march ! 

227.  Physical  Training.  This  is  of  the  first  im- 
portance, and  readily  meets  a  keen  response  from  the 
men.  They  know  that  they  need  the  highest  possible 
development  of  physical  skill  and  endurance,  that  they 
must  be  brought  in  some  way  from  the  gentlemanly 
habits  of  decent  living  into  a  state  of  preparedness, 
mental  and  physical,  for  the  most  aggressive,  brutal, 
individual  fighting,  where  the  man  must  kill  or  be  killed. 
Physical  training,  and  later  bayonet  combat,  with  all 
the  forms  of  exercise  designed  for  this  especial  need,  meet 
this  requirement,  if  entered  into  with  the  aggressive 
spirit  and  conducted  with  a  grim  earnestness  of  purpose 
to  be  just  a  shade  quicker  and  surer  than  the  other 
fellow. 


168  MILITARY  MANPOWER 

Running  is  the  basis  of  all  physical  development. 
You  may  expect  a  lot  of  "double  time,"  and  should  be 
disappointed  if  you  do  not  get  it.  In  all  these  drills 
mental  alertness  is  a  prime  consideration,  and  explana- 
tions should  be  very  brief.  The  men  must  do  their  own 
thinking.  And  physical  drills  should  also  be  made 
drills  of  precision  for  discipline  in  control.  There  are 
none  better  for  this  purpose,  requiring  such  frequent  and 
accurate  response  to  the  will  of  the  leader.  Even  a 
battalion  may  be  trained  in  this  drill  by  its  own  com- 
mander. It  is  the  one  chance  he  has  in  the  first  weeks 
to  establish  the  fact  that  his  men  make  a  team,  and 
that  he  is  its  captain.  Every  move,  from  taking  off 
coats  and  hats  to  putting  them  on  again,  should  be 
made  a  matter  of  uniform  precision,  done  by  count.  The 
men  will  like  it. 

Military  games  are  an  excellent  phase  of  this  work. 
Anticipate  instructions  in  a  new  drill  movement  by 
having  the  men  run  from  one  formation  "at  will"  and 
form  in  the  one  contemplated.  Devise  stunts  that  will 
test  their  alertness  and  attention  to  orders. 

228.  Military  Courtesy.  Your  strict  observance  of 
the  forms  of  military  courtesy  is  a  measure  of  your  dis- 
cipline and  soldierliness.  All  the  armies  of  the  civilized 
world  from  time  immemorial  have  found  it  advantage- 
ous and  fitting  to  observe  strict  military  etiquette  and 
ceremonial;  and  these  forms  are  much  the  same  in  all 
services. 

The  military  salute  is  universal.    It  is  at  foundation 


PSYCHOLOGICAL  ELEMENTS  169 

but  a  courteous  recognition  between  two  individuals  of 
their  common  fellowship  in  the  same  honorable  pro- 
fession, the  profession  of  arms.  Regulations  require 
that  it  be  rendered  by  both  the  senior  and  the  junior,  as 
bare  courtesy  requires  between  gentlemen  in  civil  life. 
It  is  in  reality  rather  a  privilege  than  an  obligation,  it 
betokens  good  standing  in  a  common  cause;  a  prisoner, 
not  being  in  good  standing,  is  forbidden  by  regulations 
to  render  the  salute.  This  is  the  right  conception  of 
saluting;  and  in  this  light  you  will  see  that  the  question 
should  be  not  "shall  I  salute?"  but  rather  "may  1 
salute?"  And  if  you  are  an  individual  out  of  ranks 
you  can  rarely  go  wrong  by  saluting.  The  precision 
and  snap  with  which  you  salute  marks  the  type  of 
soldier  you  are  and  the  pride  you  take  in  your  profes- 
sion. The  smart  salute  indicates  that  you  are  so  trained 
as  to  get  the  advantage  of  that  second  over  your 
opponent;  the  indifferent  one  suggests  placing  odds 
on  the  other  fellow.  It  is  a  pleasure  to  return  a  snappy 
salute,  and  a  strange  officer  is  apt  to  inquire  to  what 
organization  you  belong.  There  are  so-called  salutes 
so  indifferently  made  that  an  officer  would  be  ashamed 
to  acknowledge  them.  He  could  feel  no  brotherhood 
with  such  a  soldier. 

229.  Guard  Duty.  Duty  as  a  sentinel  is  the  most 
responsible,  dignified,  and  serious  individual  duty  that 
a  soldier  may  be  called  upon  to  perform.  He  must  be 
taught  to  look  upon  this  duty  in  that  light.  Delin- 
quencies, such  as  temporary  absence,  drinking  intoxi- 


170  MILITARY  MANPOWER 

eating  liquors,  or  neglect,  which  might  not  be  so  serious 
in  ordinary  circumstances,  become  grave  offenses  when 
committed  by  a  soldier  who  is  on  the  guard  detail. 

Sentinels  are  given  dignity  and  authority  fully  com- 
mensurate with  their  great  responsibilities.  Officers 
o£  all  grades  as  well  as  enlisted  men  are  required  to  re- 
spect their  authority.  They  take  orders  from  no  one 
except  those  officers  directly  connected  with  the  guard. 
Such  dignity  must  lend  grave  seriousness  to  the  per- 
formance of  then-  duties.  This  is  often  the  first  time 
in  his  life  that  this  man  has  been  in  a  position  to  give 
orders  to  anybody.  Properly  treated,  it  may  be  made 
a  fine  means  for  developing  self-respect  and  sense  of 
personal  responsibility  and  force.  The  dignity  of  the 
sentinel  on  post  should  be  reflected  in  the  highest  degree 
by  smartness  in  dress,  equipment  and  military  conduct 
on  the  part  of  the  sentinel.  He  stands  alone,  under  the 
eyes  of  all  who  pass.  He  should  be  an  example  in 
soldierliness.  He  represents  his  organization,  whose 
efficiency  is  likely  to  be  judged  by  his  conduct  and 
appearance. 

230.  Sanitation.  This  is  another  of  the  "most 
important"  subjects.  An  army  command  now  keeps 
the  best  health  record  of  any  community  in  the  country. 
It  is  the  initial  care  of  the  medical  corps  under  the 
commanding  officer,  and  that  condition  is  best  served 
when  both  are  frankly  working  together  for  the  general 
welfare.  Any  system  of  sanitation  fails  that  does  not 
enlist  the  cooperation  of  the  line  officers  and  men. 
Conditions  are  conceivable  in  which  the  men  would 


PSYCHOLOGICAL  ELEMENTS  171 

better  take  chances  of  disease  than  be  worn  to  death 
with  unusual  hardships  in  trying  to  bring  about  ideal 
sanitary  conditions.  Both  parties  must  be  reasonable 
and  for  the  doctor  as  well  as  the  commanding  officer 
stands  that  fundamental  principle  of  reducing  to  a 
minimum  the  hardships  of  the  men. 

When  making  a  camp,  the  surgeon  must  quickly 
decide  upon  any  sanitary  measures  he  may  recommend 
to  be  inaugurated,  so  that  the  necessary  fatigue  details 
may  go  about  them  at  once.  This  work  should  be 
cleaned  up  with  the  rest,  so  that  when  the  men  have 
composed  themselves  for  rest  or  diversion  they  will  not 
be  upset  by  the  arrival  of  an  orderly  announcing  a 
fatigue  detail. 

231.  First  Aid.  Every  soldier  should  be  eager  to 
learn  the  proper  uses  of  the  first-aid  packet.  Not  only 
may  such  knowledge  enable  him  sometime  to  save  him- 
self, but  even  better,  it  may  enable  him  to  minister  in- 
telligently to  a  wounded  comrade.  Practical  instruc- 
tion will  give  him  opportunity  to  learn  this.  He  should 
not  be  satisfied  with  looking  on  from  a  distance,  but 
should  actually  handle,  and  be  sure  he  understands  the 
proper  use  of,  the  contents  of  this  precious  package. 
In  no  one  other  thing  has  the  Medical  Department  done 
so  much  to  alleviate  the  horrors  of  the  battle  field.  Let 
the  men  go  to  the  surgeon's  lecture  in  the  above  spirit, 
let  the  surgeon  force  himself  to  speak  the  men's  lan- 
guage, confine  himself  to  the  few  practical  uses  that  the 
men  may  remember,  and  instruction  in  first  aid  becomes 
the  vital,  interesting  thing  it  should  be. 


172  MILITARY  MANPOWER 

This  knowledge  is  particularly  important  to  the 
members  of  a  patrol.  In  the  service  of  information  the 
advance  detachments  must  often  go  on  without  sur- 
geons, and  depend  upon  themselves  for  medical  aid  and 
attention  in  case  of  injury  and  sickness.  In  war,  the 
wounded  must  often  lie  hours  awaiting  skilled  medical 
attention.  And  when  you  realize  what  your  feelings 
would  be  in  the  presence  of  a  wounded  comrade,  if  you 
were  incapable  of  ministering  to  him  intelligently,  you 
will  now  give  attention  to  learning  what  you  may  of 
proper  treatments. 

232.  Ceremonies.  With  new  troops  these  may  be 
made  potent  agents  for  arousing  esprit  de  corps  and 
morale.  Occasional  parades  and  particularly  reviews 
enable  the  man  to  see  his  whole  command  working 
smoothly  together  and  thus  arouse  a  sense  of  unity 
and  strength,  and  feelings  of  confidence  and  pride  in 
being  a  member  of  this  big  splendid  machine.  The 
martial  music  of  the  regimental  band,  the  sight  of  the 
national  colors  with  its  dignified  guard,  inspire  patriotic 
emotions  that  put  spirit  into  work.  For  the  whole 
regiment  to  march  in  review  past  its  colonel  to  the 
music  of  its  band  is  a  splendid  way  to  start  the  com- 
panies for  their  drill  grounds  each  morning. 

During  ceremonies  do  not  make  corrections  in  the 
same  spirit  as  at  drill.  Every  one  from  private  to 
captain  must  conspire  to  make  the  movements  as  quiet, 
smooth,  and  dignified  as  possible.  The  men  must 
exercise  a  self-control  that  will  result  in  absolute  im- 
mobility in  ranks.  A  ceremony  is  really  a  test  of 


PSYCHOLOGICAL  ELEMENTS  173 

company  discipline  and  drill  efficiency,  and  generally 
brings  out  some  failure  which  should  be  the  subject  for 
correction  at  the  ne  xt  drill. 

233.  Information.     Training  for  the  service  of  in- 
formation can  be  made  most  interesting  and  calls  out 
many  soldierly  qualities.     Patrolling  and  scouting  re- 
quire high  development  of  individual  ability,  resource- 
fulness and  sense  of  duty.  Volumes  have  been  written, 
full  of  good  suggestions.     A  fundamental  one,  often 
missed  by  the  men,  is  the  distinction  between  the  patrols 
of  a  covering  detachment  and  independent  ones  on  a 
mission  of  information  of  the  enemy.     The  latter  de- 
pends   on    concealment,    the    former    must    proceed 
boldly,  exposing  themselves,  sacrificing  themselves  if 
necessary,  concerned  only  in  getting  the  information 
quickly  and  surely,  and  transmitting  it  to  their  com- 
mander in  time  to  save  the  situation. 

234.  Small  Arms  Practice.     Volumes  are  written 
on  this  also.     Every  good  instructor  welcomes  target 
practice  for  the  opportunity  it  gives  him  to  get  at  his 
men  and  to  build  them  into  self-reliant  soldiers.  Govern- 
ment is  lavish  with  the  means,  it  only  remains  for  the 
skill  and  enthusiasm  of  the  officer  to  use  them  in  such 
a  way  as  to  make  his  men  feel  that  they  are  ready  to 
meet  the  enemy.     The  same  spirit  of  determination  to 
kill  may  be  put  into  target  practice,  as  is  put  into 
bayonet  training.     This  idea  was  called  the  "bloody 
bullet,"   and  was   most   effective   in  producing  good 
shots.     Our  army  has  developed  a  system  of  training 
which  results  in  a  high  degree  of  individual  skill,  and  the 


174  MILITARY  MANPOWER 

American  soldier  is  expected  to  be  so  trained  as  to  have 
not  only  the  cool  nerve  but  the  actual  ability  to  lie  on 
the  firing  line  and  make  bull's-eyes  on  the  individual 
persons  of  the  enemy. 

235.  Other  Subjects.     Every  subject  has  its  own 
psychology,  as  it  has  its  own  object  in  the  training  of  a 
soldier.     This  psychology  and  object  should  determine 
how  the  subject  should  be  handled  at  drill  and  instruc- 
tion.    Witness  the  radical  change  in  our  instruction 
with  the  bayonet  when  war  forced  us  to  realize  the 
psychology  of  its  use  and  the  object  of  training  in  it. 
It  should  be  required  that  hi  every  subject  for  instruc- 
tion the  first  page  of  the  text  be  given  to  an  analysis  of 
the  objects  to  be  sought. 

236.  But  you  have  been  given  enough  to  point  your 
way  to  doing  this  for  yourself.     Then  you  will  never 
be  found  conducting  a  battle  exercise  as  a  ceremony — 
and  I  have  actually  seen  that  done.     You  have  learned 
the  importance  of  atmosphere  and  purpose,  and  know 
how  to  fit  yourself  as  leader  and  your  men  as  worthy 
soldiers.     If  you  seriously  attempt  to  do  that,  you  will 
find  your  interest  hi  your  work  increasing  and  your 
power  to  command  increasing  twofold.     You  may  then 
look  forward  confidently  to  the  test  of  battle.     But  if 
you  neglect  this  psychology  of  soldiering  you  may  expect 
in  battle  to  see  your  men  huddling  together  like  sheep, 
because  you  have  not  developed  them  into  self-sufficient, 
self-reliant,  capable  fighters;  you  will  see  their  faces 
turned  to  you  in  appeal  for  directions  which  you  will 
then  be  unable  to  give;  and  as  you  see  these  men  of 


PSYCHOLOGICAL  ELEMENTS  175 

yours  thus  needlessly  killed  and  mutilated,  you  will 
vainly  wish  you  had  taken  this  work  more  seriously, 
and  you  will  hope  that  the  next  bullet  may  take  you, 
for  with  this  failure  before  you  life  will  be  a  burden. 

237.  Riot    Duty.     While   our   training   has  as  its 
object  service  in  the  first  line  of  the  defense  of  the 
nation,  it  is  still  possible  that  the  regular  army  will  be 
ordered  to  duty  in  preserving  domestic  law  and  order. 
In  fact  it  is  often  called  to  this  duty;  and  its  per- 
formance with  justice  to  both  parties  and  with  satis- 
faction to  the  community  requires  that  all  have  a  fair 
understanding    of    its    peculiar    psychology.     Officers 
naturally  dread  riot  duty,  with  its  uncertainties  as  to 
how  to  handle  the  many  delicate  situations.     It  is  all 
the  more  important  that  they  have  as  a  background  for 
making  decisions  a  fair  understanding  of  the  principles 
involved. 

238.  Obedience  to  law  is    normally   the   result   of 
public  opinion.     When  this  fails  in  individual  cases,  the 
police  power   is  employed.     Where  many    men  join 
together  in  open  violation  of  law,  in  defiance  of  public 
opinion,  they  are  no  longer  quite  reasonable,  and  their 
misconduct  may  soon  pass  the  power  of  the  civil  au- 
thorities to  control.     To  meet  this  contingency  every 
government  maintains  a  military  force. 

The  law  recognizes  how  uncertainty  will  assail  you 
as  you  contemplate  the  performance  of  this  duty,  and 
recognizes  also  the  impracticability  of  laying  down 
definite  rules  of  conduct  to  govern  you  in  each  particular 
case.  It  therefore  expressly  reposes  confidence  in  your 


176  MILITARY  MANPOWER 

judgment,  intelligence,  and  faithfulness,  and  backs 
you  up  absolutely  so  long  as  you  conscientiously  use 
them.  But  you  must  cease  using  force  the  moment 
your  object  is  accomplished,  and  never  assume  that 
your  function  includes  inflicting  punishment. 

239.  A  study  of  the  psychology  of  crowds  and  of 
mobs  is  good  in  this  connection.  Enough  here  to 
sketch  how  these  things  come  about  and  are  controlled; 
and  to  give  a  few  of  the  more  important  principles  that 
obtain  in  mob  psychology. 

In  normal  circumstances  men  as  individuals  are  law 
abiding  and  self-restrained,  in  deference  to  public 
opinion  and  their  own  sense  of  responsibility.  Some 
sense  of  common  wrong  may  unite  certain  ones  into  a 
group  for  the  common  purpose  of  obtaining  redress  or 
instituting  improvement.  This  group  may  start  with 
no  intention  of  committing  any  overt  act  or  even  of 
actually  doing  any  particular  thing,  and  yet  end  by 
being  led  into  most  unfortunate  excesses. 

The  individuals  who  compose  the  group  have  to  a 
degree  lost  their  identity  and  have  passed  much  of 
their  individual  responsibility  to  the  shoulders  of  the 
group.  They  thus  come  to  find  themselves  feeling 
free  to  do  things  they  would  never  consider  doing  as 
individuals,  and  being  controlled  by  statements  and 
suggestions  which  they  would  know  to  be  absurd  in 
ordinary  circumstances.  Thus  they  approach  a  point 
where  they  do  not  respond  to  sound  reason  and  logical 
argument,  but  rather  react  to  impulses  which  are 
aroused  by  passionate  appeals,  daring  suggestions, 


PSYCHOLOGICAL  ELEMENTS  177 

almost  anything  that  ha?  a  catching  sound  and  is  often 
enough  repeated.  And  thus  they  may  end  by  becoming 
a  mob,  susceptible  to  blind  impulses  and  ruled  by  un- 
reason. 

In  its  beginnings  this  group  is  easily  amenable  to 
control,  for  the  "mob  will"  has  not  yet  taken  form,  and 
the  individuals  still  retain  some  sense  of  reason,  personal 
responsibility,  and  fear  of  consequences.  But  the  longer 
they  remain  together,  the  greater  their  numbers,  the 
more  they  are  harangued  as  a  body  having  a  common 
purpose,  the  more  surely  does  this  "crowd  will"  take 
form  and  make  possible  its  transformation  into  a 
mob.  Therefore  by  temporizing  with  the  crowd  you 
strengthen  its  unity  and  encourage  the  growth  of  its 
concerted  will.  Action  to  control  the  situation  must  be 
prompt  and  decisive,  and  directed  to  an  immediate  dis- 
persal of  the  crowd.  Let  the  mob  spirit  once  get  really 
under  way,  feel  its  unity  and  find  its  peerless  leader,  and 
it  may  be  controlled  only  by  similar  tactics  to  those  of 
the  demogogue  who  now  leads  it,  or  by  the  use  of  the 
armed  forces  of  the  law. 

240.  Psychological  Principles,  (a)  A  crowd  which 
is  to  become  a  mob  is  in  its  beginnings  cowardly.  Its 
individuals  hesitate  at  open  violation  of  law  and  are 
fearful  of  its  consequences,  (b)  These  individual  wills 
are  going  to  merge  into  the  "crowd  will,"  unreasoning 
impulsive,  led  this  way  or  that  by  forces  that  might  have 
no  power  to  control  its  members  as  individuals,  (c) 
The  longer  the  crowd  is  together,  the  greater  its  num- 
bers, the  more  it  is  harangued  or  otherwise  dealt  with  as 


178  MILITARY  MANPOWER 

a  unit,  the  more  completely  does  this  "crowd  will"  take 
shape  and  gain  in  strength  and  daring,  (d)  By  tem- 
porizing with  a  crowd  you  merely  allay  the  individual's 
fear  of  consequences  and  aid  in  building  up  a  unit  of 
action  which  will  become  the  unreasoning  mob.  (e)  In 
its  earliest  stages  the  mob  itself  is  cowardly,  of  necessity 
undisciplined  and  with  no  certain  leader  or  tactics. 
Brought  face  to  face  with  the  perfectly  ordered  and 
quiet  discipline  and  force  of  the  military  it  recognizes 
its  own  inferiority  and  is  apprehensive  of  consequences, 
(f)  If  the  military  shows  uncertainty  or  vacillation,  at- 
tempts to  temporize  or  treat  with  it  as  equals,  it  imme- 
diately gains  assurance  and  courage,  (g)  If  now  the 
commanding  officer  of  the  troops  makes  the  egregious 
blunder  of  bluffing  in  any  way,  for  example,  by  firing 
blank  cartridges  or  firing  over  the  head  of  the  mob, 
the  spirit  of  daring  and  recklessness  will  spring  to  the 
fore,  and  lead  to  uncontrolled  bloodshed  and  destruc- 
tion. The  moral  weakness  or  the  falsely  conceived 
gentleness  and  mercy  of  the  commanding  officer  will 
result  in  tenfold  suffering,  (h)  A  crowd  split  into 
sections  will  rarely  unite  again,  (i)  A  mob  is  especially 
subject  to  the  disorganization  attendant  upon  losing  its 
leader  or  leaders. 

241.  The  fact  that  troops  have  been  called  out  estab- 
lishes the  fact  that  the  time  has  come  for  the  use  of  force. 
The  military  must  represent  this  force,  dignified, 
absolute,  and  without  thought  of  arguing.  They  must 
impress  themselves  upon  the  crowd  as  representing  the 
immutable  power  of  the  law,  solemn,  dignified  and  un- 


PSYCHOLOGICAL  ELEMENTS  179 

swerving.  The  directions  of  their  commanding  officer 
must  be  carried  out  promptly  and  without  argument. 
If  a  commanding  officer  of  troops  ordered  a  mob  to  dis- 
perse, he  fails  utterly  in  his  conception  of  the  dignity  of 
his  office,  and  the  dignity  of  law,  if  he  does  not  employ 
such  force  as  to  result  in  prompt  and  complete  com- 
pliance with  his  orders.  A  few  deliberate,  conscien- 
tious shots  fired  at  the  very  first  time  the  mob  fails  to 
obey  his  orders,  will  not  only  save  lives  in  handling  that 
particular  mob,  but  will  have  established  in  the  minds 
of  all  the  dignity  and  power  which  the  military  repre- 
sents, and  thereby  will  have  saved  bloodshed  and 
destruction  at  other  points  of  contact  between  the 
troops  and  the  rioters.  It  is  the  true  humanitarian 
who  shows  relentless  severity  at  the  very  outset.  This 
is  the  fundamental  principle  of  dealing  with  mobs. 

Policemen  may  push  and  jostle,  club  and  be  clubbed, 
step  on  toes  and  threaten  to  shoot  without  doing  so; 
but  the  military  descend  absolutely  from  their  true  posi- 
tion of  dignity  and  their  true  function  in  the  law  when 
they  resort  to  such  practices  in  dealing  with  a  mob.  They 
have  been  called  as  a  last  resort  to  defend  the  majesty  of 
the  law,  in  mercy  let  them  do  it  with  dignity,  severity 
and  without  compromise.  Done  in  this  way  their  tour 
will  be  shortened,  lives  and  property  will  be  saved, 
they  will  be  called  less  often  to  this  duty,  and  the  general 
welfare  of  the  community  and  the  State  will  be  en- 
hanced. 

242.  Practical  Suggestions.  It  is  impracticable  to  give 
detailed  instructions  for  the  conduct  of  troops  on  this 


180  MILITARY  MANPOWER 

duty.    Observance  of  the  following  principles,  and  appli- 
cation of  tactical  training,  should  control  any  situation: 

(a)  Do  not  dissipate  your  strength  by  making  small 
detachments  for  various  purposes,  but  always  have 
enough  men  together  at  any  point  of  contact  to  prevent 
the  possibility  of  the  mob  getting  the  better  of  the  sit- 
uation, and  if  practicable  have  sufficient  force  so  to 
overawe  the  mob  that  it  will  recognize  your  power  to 
enforce  your  orders,  and  disperse  without  necessity  for 
aggressive  measures. 

(b)  In  the  execution  of  any  movement  always  hold 
out  a  reserve  for  emergency. 

(c)  Gain  and  hold  the  moral  effect  on  the  undiscip- 
lined mob,  of  the  quiet,  positive,  solid  and  precise  exe- 
cution of  movements  by  your  own  forces. 

(d)  Enforce  rigid  discipline,  the  strictest  observance 
of  military  forms  and  particularly  rigid  fire  discipline. 
Men  should  fire  only  at  the  command  of  their  immediate 
commanding  officer,  excepting  an  individual  firing  in 
self-defense,    and   sharpshooters   who   have   been   in- 
structed to  kill  any  parties  firing  or  throwing  missiles 
at  the  troops. 

(e)  If  the  men  have  been  so  trained  that  they  may  be 
controlled  accurately  by  visual  signals,  their  use  on  this 
duty  will  add  greatly  to  the  moral  effect  on  the  mob. 

(f)  Be  as  particular  about  security  in  this  duty,  as 
in  the  field  against  the  enemy,  guarding  particularly 
your  flanks  and  rear  from  the  possibility  of  surprise. 

(g)  The  commanding  officer  should  immediately  es- 
tablish a  system  for  gaining  information  as  to  the  inten- 


PSYCHOLOGICAL  ELEMENTS  181 

tions  and  movements  of  the  rioters.  He  will  use  for  this 
purpose  whatever  opportunities  local  conditions  may 
offer. 

(h)  Troops  will  arrest  all  individuals  found  in  open 
resistance  to  the  civil  authorities,  and  are  required  to 
overcome  such  resistance,  and  to  secure  and  keep  the 
peace  by  the  use  of  whatever  force  their  immediate 
commander  deems  necessary.  Parties  arrested  are  im- 
mediately turned  over  to  the  civil  authorities.  If  this 
arrest  is  not  made  in  connection  with  the  open  violation 
or  resistance,  but  at  a  later  time,  for  example  the  next 
day,  it  would  then  be  made  by  due  process  of  law,  the 
law  officer  being  backed  up  if  necessary  by  the  military 
power. 

(i)  In  the  case  of  unlawful  assemblies  to  be  dispersed, 
warning  must  first  be  given  by  a  civil  officer  if  one  be 
available,  otherwise  by  the  commanding  officer  of  the 
troops.  This  warning  cautions  so-called  innocent  by- 
standers,  and  curiosity  mongers,  that  their  presence 
makes  them  equally  guilty  with  the  rest.  They  must 
be  given  a  reasonable  opportunity  to  get  away. 

(j)  Where  the  riots  are  the  result  of  conflicts  between 
two  parties  in  the  community,  as  in  the  case  of  labor  dis- 
putes, observe  the  strictest  impartiality.  Avoid  even 
the  appearance  of  taking  sides.  Do  not  accept  from 
either  party  such  assistance  as  means  of  transportation, 
subsistence  or  quarters.  The  supreme  commander 
should  consult  with  both,  making  his  position  as  an  im- 
partial instrument  of  law  for  the  preservation  of  peace 
and  protection  of  life  and  property  clear  to  both  parties, 


182  MILITARY  MANPOWER 

and  enlisting  the  intelligent  cooperation  of  the  leaders 
of  both  sides  in  the  proper  observance  of  the  laws. 

(k)  The  above  function  is  for  the  supreme  com- 
mander alone.  His  subordinates,  officers  and  men,  must 
avoid  any  discussions  whatever,  appearing  only  to  be 
what  they  are  in  reality,  a  silent,  irresistible  force,  for 
the  execution  of  orders  in  sustaining  the  law. 

(1)  The  supreme  commander  should  take  such  steps, 
using  the.  press  and  pulpit  if  practicable,  to  inform  all 
the  public  of  the  existing  conditions;  what  the  presence 
of  the  troops  really  means  for  the  impartial  but  relent- 
less observance  of  law;  that  all  present  at  unlawful  as- 
semblies even  though  there  through  motives  of  curiosity 
only,  are  equally  liable;  attempting  to  enlist  the  sym- 
pathy and  cooperation  of  all  good  citizens  with  the 
work  of  the  troops. 

(m)  The  men  must  be  made  to  understand  that  they 
are  "in  service"  in  its  most  serious  sense;  that  the  most 
rigid  discipline  must  be  observed;  that  in  dealing  with 
citizens  they  must  be  most  courteous,  yet  firm  in  carry- 
ing out  their  instructions;  that  they  pay  no  attention 
whatever,  nor  appear  to  hear,  insults  or  epithets  from 
the  crowd;  that  their  immediate  officers  are  fully 
responsible  for  their  conduct,  and  that  the  law  protects 
them  absolutely  in  their  execution  of  all  legal  orders 
from  their  officers. 

(n)  Distinguish  the  difference  between  a  crowd  and 
its  later  development,  an  ugly  mob.  A  crowd  may  be 
dispersed  by  a  mere  show  of  force  and  firm  plain  spoken 
directions.  The  best  way  to  disperse  an  ugly  mob  is  to 


PSYCHOLOGICAL  ELEMENTS  183 

prevent  its  having  formed  and  reached  that  stage.  Early 
information  and  smart  patrolling  will  often  accomplish 
this. 

(o)  Let  it  be  generally  known  that  any  person  dis- 
playing or  attempting  to  use  a  firearm  or  dangerous 
weapon  or  a  stone,  brick  or  other  missile,  will  be  fired 
upon  by  a  sharpshooter  without  warning.  At  such  time 
as  this  such  a  person  is  a  public  enemy,  to  be  dealt  with 
relentlessly. 

(p)  Let  it  be  understood  by  all,  your  own  troops  as 
well  as  the  public,  that  the  force  which  you  will  use  in 
enforcing  law  will  be  military  force,  and  military  force 
only,  bullets,  bayonets,  sabers,  used  as  they  would  be 
used  in  war.  That  sharpshooters  will  always  be  detailed 
to  shoot  down  parties  firing  or  throwing  missiles  at  the 
troops.  This  should  have  a  most  salutary  effect.  . 

(q)  Be  sure  that  every  man  to  the  lowest  private  has 
a  clear  understanding  of  the  mission  of  the  troops. 
Then  caution  them  to  avoid  any  talking  about  it  what- 
ever. Do  not  tell  how  strong  you  are,  how  you  are 
going  to  do  this  or  that,  get  the  full  advantage  of  keep- 
ing the  rioters  ignorant  of  your  strength  and  plans. 
This  has  its  moral  effect  as  well  as  physical. 

(r)  Avoid  doing  police  duty  unless  ordered  by  com- 
petent authority.  It  is  not  your  proper  function. 

(s)  The  horse  is  a  cavalryman's  best  weapon  for  per- 
suading crowds  before  they  have  reached  too  ugly  a 
stage.  The  horses'  haunches  make  the  more  efficient 
end  for  this,  and  the  more  nervous  the  haunches  appear 
(stimulated  by  a  proper  use  of  the  spur)  the  more 


184  MILITARY  MANPOWER 

efficient  they  are.  Remember  that  such  methods  are  for 
use  only  with  small  crowds  that  have  not  yet  reached 
the  ugly  stage. 

(t)  In  dealing  with  an  ugly  mob  only  stern,  in- 
flexible, military  means  may  be  used;  and  remember 
that  the  sterner  and  more  inflexible  they  are  the  more 
efficient  and  humanitaiian  they  will  prove.  In  this 
case  you  will  never  allow  your  troops  to  come  into 
personal  contact  with  a  mob,  if  it  can  be  avoided.  If 
a  charge  is  necessary  it  should  be  a  military  charge, 
driven  home  so  relentlessly  as  to  accomplish  its  purpose 
promptly  and  surely,  and  to  inspire  a  wholesome  awe 
of  your  troops  in  the  future. 

We  are  now  contemplating  a  situation  that  requires 
actual  fighting,  and  all  the  tactical  principles  for  fighting 
an  enemy  in  war  time  are  equally  applicable  here. 
Their  weak  points  and  yours  are  the  flanks  and  rear. 
Surprise  and  unexpected  contact  are  as  potent  here 
as  in  the  field;  to  be  caught  changing  formation,  or 
unable  to  maneuver  and  get  into  position,  is  equally 
dangerous.  Streets  and  buildings  to  be  entered  or 
left,  become  defiles  with  all  their  advantages  to  the 
enemy.  Entraining  and  detraining  are  particularly  dan- 
gerous in  the  immediate  vicinity  of  the  enemy,  and 
arrangements  must  always  be  made  to  avoid  it.  Re- 
connoissance  and  guard  duty  must  be  performed  with 
the  utmost  faithfulness.  Whether  entraining,  on  the 
streets,  or  in  camp  or  quarters,  it  will  be  a  negligent 
leader  who  allows  himself  or  his  men  to  run  blindly  into 
difficult  situations.  The  unexpected  and  persistent 


PSYCHOLOGICAL  ELEMENTS  185 

appearance  of  active  patrols  in  affected  districts  will  be 
as  disconcerting  to  rioters  as  to  the  commander  of  an 
enemy's  army.  In  marching  through  a  street,  your 
flanking  patrols  for  protection  from  rifle  fire  of  the 
enemy,  are  dismounted  sharpshooters  marching  on 
either  side-walk,  watching  the  roofs  and  windows  on  the 
opposite  side,  with  orders  to  shoot  any  person  starting 
to  fire  or  throw  missiles  at  the  troops.  In  the  case  of 
large  mobs,  your  turning  columns  are  troops  moving  in 
parallel  streets,  who  attack  the  mob  in  the  flank  and 
rear  while  you  hold  them  in  front  (these  flank  and  rear 
attacks  must  always  be  made  so  as  to  leave  correspond- 
ing streets  open  for  the  mob's  retreat).  The  object 
for  which  you  were  called  out  is  your  military  mission. 
The  information  you  immediately  proceed  to  gather  of 
the  strength,  resources,  intentions  and  movements  of 
the  rioters,  is  your  military  information  as  to  the  enemy. 
Maps  of  the  community  with  all  necessary  data  as  to 
location  of  public  buildings  and  their  facilities,  lines  of 
communication,  water  supply,  etc.,  are  your  military 
information  of  the  terrain.  And  you  should  go  about 
gathering  this  information  as  assiduously  as  you  would 
in  actual  war. 

(u)  In  the  matter  of  controlling  the  situation  you 
should  endeavor  to  have  the  civil  authorities  close  all 
saloons  and  similar  places  that  will  be  natural  meeting 
places  for  the  unruly  elements.  You  may  also  find  it 
best  that  they  forbid  assemblies  at  such  times. 

(v)  Be  particular  that  you  yourself  do  not  indulge  in 
drinking  at  this  time.  Conditions  may  require  you  to 


186  MILITARY  MANPOWER 

take  grave  responsibilities,  even  to  taking  life,  and  you 
must  not  be  in  a  position  where  it  may  be  said  your 
judgment  was  even  in  the  slightest  degree  influenced  by 
drink. 

243.  Conclusion.  The  lesson  we  have  tried  to 
bring  home  is  this: — that  you  can  become  a  good  drill 
master  and  a  good  officer  only  when  you  have  taken  a 
personal  interest  in  yourself  as  such.  Certain  points 
have  been  enumerated  here.  Any  one  of  you  who 
takes  this  up  seriously  will  begin  to  find  himself  in- 
terested in  the  effects  he  gets  from  each  thing  he  does 
or  says  at  drill;  will  find  himself  experimenting  with 
new  ways  of  putting  things;  and  will  himself  observe 
or  work  out  many  more  of  these  helpful  points  than 
are  here  given.  For  example,  an  officer  who  is  thinking 
of  the  effect  he  is  getting  will  not  make  a  general 
explanation  of  some  point  or  movement  in  drill  and 
then  immediately  follow  this  explanation  by  ordering 
the  execution  of  some  other  movement  which  has 
nothing  to  do  with  his  remarks.  Instead  he  will  at 
once  make  some  personal  application  to  bring  his  re- 
marks home  to  those  who  need  them,  or  order  the 
movement  he  has  explained  and  thus  illustrate  the 
points  he  has  made  before  they  are  forgotten.  Reason- 
able as  this  seems  when  we  think  of  it, — this  very  point 
is  being  constantly  missed  by  our  ordinary  drill  masters. 
Think  of  these  things  yourself  when  at  drill,  whether 
in  ranks  or  in  front  of  them.  You  will  learn  more  from 
personal  observation  and  thinking  than  from  all  the 
books  that  could  ever  be  written. 


PSYCHOLOGICAL  ELEMENTS  187 

While  if  this  does  not  appeal  to  you,  if  you  are  not 
interested  in  the  human  equation  of  your  job,  you  have 
chosen  the  wrong  profession.  Our  army  officers  must 
be  preeminently  good  instructors,  which  demands 
sympathetic  touch  with  human  nature.  Our  most 
difficult  task  will  be  to  fit  the  millions  of  civilians  to 
be  soldiers  when  war  comes.  We  were  not  prepared 
for  that  task  in  the  late  war,  and  we  suffered  because 
of  it,  An  officer  who  does  not  fit  himself  to  be  a  good 
instructor,  who  is  not  so  good  in  the  art  that  he  may 
be  an  instructor  of  instructors,  is  not  playing  his  part. 
He  is  not  worthy  of  his  commission.  If  he  is  not  in- 
terested in  developing  the  character  and  soul  fiber  of 
his  men,  he  should  resign, — and  find  some  job  in  which 
he  may  deal  with  men  as  with  any  soulless  commodity. 
He  is  no  fit  leader  in  a  profession  seventy-five  per  cent, 
of  whose  efficiency  depends  on  morale. 


NOTES  189 


190  NOTES 


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194  NOTES 


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196  NOTES 


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198  NOTES 


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200  NOTES 


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204  NOTES 


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214  NOTES 


NOTES  21S 


216  NOTES 


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220  NOTES 


UHIWM*  ^Yl'SamP^ W""  °' 

T.r.meB=ii"- 


YB  03998 


OF  CALIFORNIA  LIBRARY 


